A report on Achaemenid Empire, Miletus, Alexander the Great and Caria

Alexander riding Bucephalus on a Roman mosaic

The Mausoleum at Halicarnassus, one of the Seven wonders of the ancient world, was built by Greek architects for the local Achaemenid satrap of Caria, Mausolus (Scale model)

The Achaemenid Empire at its greatest territorial extent under the rule of Darius I (522 BC–486 BC)

Map of Miletus and other cities within the Lydian Empire

Alexander III riding Bucephalus on a Roman mosaic

Carian cities in white. This map depicts the current rivers and coastline and certain features have changed over the years, notably Miletus, Heracleia, and Myus were on the south side of a gulf and Priene on the north side; the river Maeander has since filled in the gulf. Also politically Telmessos, Miletus, and Kalynda were sometimes considered Carian and sometimes not

The Ionic Stoa on the Sacred Way in Miletus

Map of The Kingdom of Macedon in 336 BC, birthplace of Alexander

Relief of an Amazonomachy from the Mausoleum at Halicarnassus.

Apollo statue found in Miletus. Currently in Istanbul Archeology Museum

Roman medallion depicting Olympias, Alexander's mother

Map of the expansion process of Achaemenid territories

Archaeological Site of Pella, Greece, Alexander's birthplace

Theatre at Halicarnassus in Bodrum, with the Bodrum Castle seen in the background.

Cyrus the Great is said, in the Bible, to have liberated the Hebrew captives in Babylon to resettle and rebuild Jerusalem, earning him an honored place in Judaism.

Coinage of Miletus at the time of Aristagoras. Late 6th-early 5th century BC.

Philip II of Macedon, Alexander's father

The tomb of Cyrus the Great, founder of the Achaemenid Empire. At Pasargadae, Iran.

Electrum coinage of Miletus, circa 600–550 BC.

Battle plan from the Battle of Chaeronea

A kylix found in Milas on display at Milas Museum

The Achaemenid Empire at its greatest extent, c. 500 BC

The plan of Milet in the Classical period

Pausanius assassinates Philip II, Alexander's father, during his procession into the theatre

Coin of Maussolos as Achaemenid Satrap of Caria. Circa 377/6-353/2 BC

The Persian queen Atossa, daughter of Cyrus the Great, sister-wife of Cambyses II, Darius the Great's wife, and mother of Xerxes the Great

The emblema of the Stag Hunt Mosaic, c. 300 BC, from Pella; the figure on the right is possibly Alexander the Great due to the date of the mosaic along with the depicted upsweep of his centrally-parted hair (anastole); the figure on the left wielding a double-edged axe (associated with Hephaistos) is perhaps Hephaestion, one of Alexander's loyal companions.

Artemisia, Queen of Halicarnassus, and commander of the Carian contingent, at the Battle of Salamis, 480 BC. Wilhelm von Kaulbach

Map showing events of the first phases of the Greco-Persian Wars

The Macedonian phalanx at the "Battle of the Carts" against the Thracians in 335 BC

Coin of Caria, Achaemenid Period. Circa 350-334 BC.

Greek hoplite and Persian warrior depicted fighting, on an ancient kylix, 5th century BC

An Ottoman mosque from the Turkish period in Miletus site

Carian soldier of the Achaemenid army, circa 480 BC. Relief on the tomb of Xerxes I.

Achaemenid king fighting hoplites, seal and seal holder, Cimmerian Bosporus.

The Market Gate of Miletus at the Pergamon Museum in Berlin

Gérard Audran after Charles LeBrun, 'Alexander Entering Babylon,' original print first published 1675, engraving, Department of Image Collections, National Gallery of Art Library, Washington, DC.

Marble head of a goddess, found in the Hadrianic Baths of Aphrodisias, 2nd century AD.

Achaemenid gold ornaments, Brooklyn Museum

Location of Miletus at the Maeander River's mouth

Alexander Cuts the Gordian Knot (1767) by Jean-Simon Berthélemy

The Temple of Zeus Lepsinos at Euromus was built on the site of an earlier Carian temple in the 2nd century AD during the reign of the emperor Hadrian.

Persian Empire timeline including important events and territorial evolution – 550–323 BC

Map of the Black Sea, featuring the chronological phasing of major Milesian colonial foundations.

Name of Alexander the Great in Egyptian hieroglyphs (written from right to left), c. 332 BC, Egypt. Louvre Museum.

Relief showing Darius I offering lettuces to the Egyptian deity Amun-Ra Kamutef, Temple of Hibis

Thales of Miletus was a Greek mathematician, astronomer and pre-Socratic philosopher from the city. He is otherwise historically recognized as the first individual known to have entertained and engaged in scientific philosophy

Site of the Persian Gate in modern-day Iran; the road was built in the 1990s.

The 24 countries subject to the Achaemenid Empire at the time of Darius, on the Egyptian statue of Darius I.

The name Fikellura derives from a site on the island of Rhodes to which this fabric has been attributed. It is now established that the center of production was Miletus.

Administrative document from Bactria dated to the seventh year of Alexander's reign (324 BC), bearing the first known use of the "Alexandros" form of his name, Khalili Collection of Aramaic Documents

The Battle of Issus, between Alexander the Great on horseback to the left, and Darius III in the chariot to the right, represented in a Pompeii mosaic dated 1st century BC – Naples National Archaeological Museum

The Killing of Cleitus, by André Castaigne (1898–1899)

Alexander's first victory over Darius, the Persian king depicted in medieval European style in the 15th century romance The History of Alexander's Battles

Silver tetradrachm of Alexander the Great found in Byblos (ca 330-300 bc.) (BnF 1998–859; 17,33g; Byblos, Price 3426b)

Frataraka dynasty ruler Vadfradad I (Autophradates I). 3rd century BC. Istakhr (Persepolis) mint.

The Phalanx Attacking the Centre in the Battle of the Hydaspes by André Castaigne (1898–1899)

Dārēv I (Darios I) used for the first time the title of mlk (King). 2nd century BC.

Alexander's invasion of the Indian subcontinent

Winged sphinx from the Palace of Darius in Susa, Louvre

Asia in 323 BC, the Nanda Empire and the Gangaridai of the Indian subcontinent, in relation to Alexander's Empire and neighbours

Volume of annual tribute per district, in the Achaemenid Empire, according to Herodotus.

Alexander (left) and Hephaestion (right): Both were connected by a tight friendship

Achaemenid tax collector, calculating on an Abax or Abacus, according to the Darius Vase (340–320 BC).

The Sacred Way from Miletus with the remains of the stoa

Alexander at the Tomb of Cyrus the Great, by Pierre-Henri de Valenciennes (1796)

Letter from the Satrap of Bactria to the governor of Khulmi, concerning camel keepers, 353 BC

A Babylonian astronomical diary (c. 323–322 BC) recording the death of Alexander (British Museum, London)

Relief of throne-bearing soldiers in their native clothing at the tomb of Xerxes I, demonstrating the satrapies under his rule.

Remains of the stoa connecting the main Bath of Faustina to the Palaestra

19th-century depiction of Alexander's funeral procession, based on the description by Diodorus Siculus

Achaemenid king killing a Greek hoplite. c. 500 BC–475 BC, at the time of Xerxes I. Metropolitan Museum of Art.

Detail of Alexander on the Alexander Sarcophagus

Persian soldiers (left) fighting against Scythians. Cylinder seal impression.

Right entrance of the ancient Greek theatre

Kingdoms of the Diadochi in 301 BC: the Ptolemaic Kingdom (dark blue), the Seleucid Empire (yellow), Kingdom of Pergamon (orange), and Kingdom of Macedon (green). Also shown are the Roman Republic (light blue), the Carthaginian Republic (purple), and the Kingdom of Epirus (red).

Color reconstruction of Achaemenid infantry on the Alexander Sarcophagus (end of 4th century BC).

A coin of Alexander the Great struck by Balakros or his successor Menes, both former somatophylakes (bodyguards) of Alexander, when they held the position of satrap of Cilicia in the lifetime of Alexander, circa 333-327 BC. The obverse shows Heracles, ancestor of the Macedonian royal line and the reverse shows a seated Zeus Aëtophoros.

Seal of Darius the Great hunting in a chariot, reading "I am Darius, the Great King" in Old Persian (𐎠𐎭𐎶𐏐𐎭𐎠𐎼𐎹𐎺𐎢𐏁𐎴 𐏋, "adam Dārayavaʰuš xšāyaθiya"), as well as in Elamite and Babylonian. The word "great" only appears in Babylonian. British Museum.

Achaemenid calvalryman in the satrapy of Hellespontine Phrygia, Altıkulaç Sarcophagus, early 4th century BC.

Armoured cavalry: Achaemenid Dynast of Hellespontine Phrygia attacking a Greek psiloi, Altıkulaç Sarcophagus, early 4th century BC.

Reconstitution of Persian landing ships at the Battle of Marathon.

Greek ships against Achaemenid ships at the Battle of Salamis.

Alexander (left), wearing a kausia and fighting an Asiatic lion with his friend Craterus (detail); late 4th century BC mosaic, Pella Museum

Iconic relief of lion and bull fighting, Apadana of Persepolis

A Roman copy of an original 3rd century BC Greek bust depicting Alexander the Great, Ny Carlsberg Glyptotek, Copenhagen

Achaemenid golden bowl with lioness imagery of Mazandaran

A mural in Pompeii, depicting the marriage of Alexander to Barsine (Stateira) in 324 BC; the couple are apparently dressed as Ares and Aphrodite.

The Hellenistic world view: world map of Eratosthenes (276–194 BC), using information from the campaigns of Alexander and his successors

A section of the Old Persian part of the trilingual Behistun inscription. Other versions are in Babylonian and Elamite.

A copy of the Behistun inscription in Aramaic on a papyrus. Aramaic was the lingua franca of the empire.

Dedication of Alexander the Great to Athena Polias at Priene, now housed in the British Museum

Alexander's empire was the largest state of its time, covering approximately 5.2 million square km.

The Buddha, in Greco-Buddhist style, 1st to 2nd century AD, Gandhara, northern Pakistan. Tokyo National Museum.

This medallion was produced in Imperial Rome, demonstrating the influence of Alexander's memory. Walters Art Museum, Baltimore.

The Mausoleum at Halicarnassus, one of the Seven wonders of the ancient world, was built by Greek architects for the local Persian satrap of Caria, Mausolus (Scale model)

Alexander in a 14th-century Armenian manuscript

Alexander in a 14th-century Byzantine manuscript

Reconstruction of the Palace of Darius at Susa. The palace served as a model for Persepolis.

Alexander conquering the air. Jean Wauquelin, Les faits et conquêtes d'Alexandre le Grand, 1448–1449

Lion on a decorative panel from Darius I the Great's palace, Louvre

Folio from the Shahnameh showing Alexander praying at the Kaaba, mid-16th century

Detail of a 16th-century Islamic painting depicting Alexander being lowered in a glass submersible

Apadana Hall, Persian and Median soldiers at Persepolis

A Hellenistic bust of a young Alexander the Great, possibly from Ptolemaic Egypt, 2nd-1st century BC, now in the British Museum

Lateral view of tomb of Cambyses II, Pasargadae, Iran

A fresco depicting a hunt scene at the tomb of Philip II, Alexander's father, at the Archaeological Site of Aigai, the only known depiction of Alexander made during his lifetime, 330s BC

Plaque with horned lion-griffins. The Metropolitan Museum of Art

Before the Persian rule that started in the 6th century BC, Miletus was considered among the greatest and wealthiest of Greek cities.

- Miletus

The Macedonian king Alexander the Great, himself an ardent admirer of Cyrus the Great, conquered most of the Achaemenid Empire by 330 BC. Upon Alexander's death, most of the former territory of the empire fell to the rule of the Hellenistic Ptolemaic Kingdom and Seleucid Empire after the partition of Alexander’s empire, until the Iranian elites of the central plateau finally reclaimed power under the Parthian Empire by the 2nd century BC.

- Achaemenid Empire

In 334 BC, he invaded the Achaemenid Persian Empire and began a series of campaigns that lasted for 10 years.

- Alexander the Great

Coastal Caria begins with Didyma south of Miletus, but Miletus had been placed in the pre-Greek Caria.

- Caria

Caria was then incorporated into the Persian Achaemenid Empire as a satrapy (province) in 545 BC. The most important town was Halicarnassus, from where its sovereigns, the tyrants of the Lygdamid dynasty (c.520-450 BC), reigned.

- Caria

The Carians were incorporated into the Macedonian Empire following the conquests of Alexander the Great and the Siege of Halicarnassus in 334 BC.

- Caria

In 334 BC, the Siege of Miletus by the forces of Alexander the Great of Macedonia liberated the city from Persian rule.

- Miletus

When Alexander died in 323 BC, Miletus came under the control of Ptolemy, governor of Caria, and his satrap of Lydia, Asander, who had become autonomous.

- Miletus

In 499 BC, the then-tyrant of Miletus, Aristagoras, launched a joint expedition with the Persian satrap Artaphernes to conquer Naxos, in an attempt to bolster his position in Miletus (both financially and in terms of prestige).

- Achaemenid Empire

In the following year, the Persian satrap (governor) of Caria, Pixodarus, offered his eldest daughter to Alexander's half-brother, Philip Arrhidaeus.

- Alexander the Great

Miletus, held by Achaemenid forces, required a delicate siege operation, with Persian naval forces nearby.

- Alexander the Great

In 343 BC, Artaxerxes committed responsibility for the suppression of the Cyprian rebels to Idrieus, prince of Caria, who employed 8,000 Greek mercenaries and forty triremes, commanded by Phocion the Athenian, and Evagoras, son of the elder Evagoras, the Cypriot monarch.

- Achaemenid Empire

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Ionia

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Ancient region on the western coast of Anatolia, to the south of present-day Izmir.

The ruins of the ancient city of Pergamon

Art relics from the Ionian cities of Asia

One of the earliest electrum coins struck in Ephesus, 620–600 BC. Obverse: Forepart of stag. Reverse: Square incuse punch.

The site of Miletus, once coastal, now inland. The plain was a bay in Classical Greece.

Gorgone with serpent, Ionia, 575-550 BC.

Possible coin of Ionia. Circa 600-550 BC

Ionia, Achaemenid Period. Uncertain satrap. Circa 350–333 BC

The Library of Celsus in Ephesus was built by the Romans in 114–117. The Temple of Artemis in Ephesus, built by king Croesus of Lydia in the 6th century BC, was one of the Seven Wonders of the Ancient World.

Ionia proper comprised a narrow coastal strip from Phocaea in the north near the mouth of the river Hermus (now the Gediz), to Miletus in the south near the mouth of the river Maeander, and included the islands of Chios and Samos.

It was bounded by Aeolia to the north, Lydia to the east and Caria to the south.

The cities within the region figured large in the strife between the Persian Empire and the Greeks.

Ionian cities appear to have retained a considerable amount of freedom until the conquest of Asia Minor by Alexander the Great.