A report on Agesilaus II

Meeting between Spartan king Agesilaus (left) and Pharnabazus II (right) in 395 BC, when Agesilaus agreed to remove himself from Hellespontine Phrygia.
Tens of thousands of Darics (popularly called "archers"), the main currency in Persia, were used to bribe the Greek states to start a war against Sparta, so that Agesilaus would have to be recalled from Asia.
Map of the situation in the Aegean in 394 BC, with the long return of Agesilaus from Asia.
Agesilaus expels the Illyrians from Epirus in 385 BC
Agesilas (center), with Athenian general Chabrias (left), in the service of Egyptian king Nectanebo I, Egypt.
Xenophon's Agesilaus.

King of Sparta from c. 399 to 358 BC. Generally considered the most important king in the history of Sparta, Agesilaus was the main actor during the period of Spartan hegemony that followed the Peloponnesian War (431–404 BC).

- Agesilaus II
Meeting between Spartan king Agesilaus (left) and Pharnabazus II (right) in 395 BC, when Agesilaus agreed to remove himself from Hellespontine Phrygia.

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The Greek military leader, philosopher and historian Xenophon of Athens.

Xenophon

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Greek military leader, philosopher, and historian, born in Athens.

Greek military leader, philosopher, and historian, born in Athens.

The Greek military leader, philosopher and historian Xenophon of Athens.
The Greek military leader, philosopher and historian Xenophon of Athens.
Route of Xenophon and the Ten Thousand (red line) in the Achaemenid Empire. The satrapy of Cyrus the Younger is delineated in green.
Xenophon leading his Ten Thousand through Persia to the Black Sea. 19th-century illustration
Xenophon's Anabasis.
Xenophon, Aphrodisias Museum.
Xenophon's Cyropaedia.
Bas-reliefs of Persian soldiers together with Median soldiers are prevalent in Persepolis. The ones with rounded caps are Median.
Fragments of Xenophon's Hellenica, Papyrus PSI 1197, Laurentian Library, Florence.
Xenophon's Agesilaus
Statue of Xenophon in front of the Austrian parliament
Xenophon dictating his history, illustration from 'Hutchinson's History of the Nations', 1915
King's Peace, promulgated by Artaxerxes II, 387 BC, as reported by Xenophon.

Experience as a mercenary and a military leader, service under Spartan commanders in Ionia, Asia Minor, Persia and elsewhere, exile from Athens, and friendship with King Agesilaus II endeared Xenophon to the Spartans.

Relief of Artaxerxes II on his tomb at Persepolis, Iran

Artaxerxes II

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King of Kings of the Achaemenid Empire from 405/4 BC to 358 BC. He was the son and successor of Darius II ((r.

King of Kings of the Achaemenid Empire from 405/4 BC to 358 BC. He was the son and successor of Darius II ((r.

Relief of Artaxerxes II on his tomb at Persepolis, Iran
Retreat of the Ten Thousand, at the Battle of Cunaxa, Jean Adrien Guignet
Armoured cavalry of Achaemenid Hellespontine Phrygia attacking a Greek psiloi at the time of Artaxerxes II and his Satrap Pharnabazus II, Altıkulaç Sarcophagus, early fourth century BC
The King's Peace, promulgated by Artaxerxes II in 387 BC, put an end to the Corinthian War under the guarantee of the Achaemenid Empire.
Achaemenid campaign of Pharnabazus II against Egypt in 373 BC.
Daric of Artaxerxes II
Ethnicities of the soldiers of the Empire, on the tomb of Artaxerxes II. On the lintel over each figure appears a trilingual inscription describing each ethnicity. These are known collectively as "Inscription A2Pa".
Tomb of Artaxerxes II in Persepolis.
Upper Relief of the tomb of Artaxerxes II.
Soldiers of many ethnicities on the upper relief

The Spartans under their king Agesilaus II had started by invading Asia Minor in 396–395 BC. To redirect the Spartans' attention to Greek affairs, Artaxerxes subsidized their enemies through his envoy Timocrates of Rhodes; in particular, the Athenians, Thebans, and Corinthians received massives subsidies.

Pelopidas leading the Thebans at the battle of Leuctra.

Battle of Leuctra

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Battle fought on 6 July 371 BC between the Boeotians led by the Thebans, and the Spartans along with their allies amidst the post-Corinthian War conflict.

Battle fought on 6 July 371 BC between the Boeotians led by the Thebans, and the Spartans along with their allies amidst the post-Corinthian War conflict.

Pelopidas leading the Thebans at the battle of Leuctra.
March of the Spartan army across the mountains
The red blocks show the placement of the elite troops within each phalanx. Top: Traditional hoplite order of battle and advance. Bottom: Epaminondas's strategy at Leuctra. The strong left wing advanced more than the weaker right wing.
This shows the flank attack that Rüstow and Köchly proposed. Delbrück rejected such an interpretation.
The restored surviving base of the Battle of Leuktra tropaion
Battles in Ancient Greece.

(According to Xenophon, the Thebans signed as "the Thebans", and asked the next day to change their signature to "the Boeotians", but one of the Spartan kings, Agesilaus II, would not allow it.) In this, Sparta saw an opportunity to reassert its shaky authority in central Greece.

Territory of ancient Sparta

Sparta

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Prominent city-state in Laconia, in ancient Greece.

Prominent city-state in Laconia, in ancient Greece.

Territory of ancient Sparta
Hollow Lacedaemon. Site of the Menelaion, the ancient shrine to Helen and Menelaus constructed in the Bronze Age city that stood on the hill of Therapne on the left bank of the Eurotas River overlooking the future site of Dorian Sparta. Across the valley the successive ridges of Mount Taygetus are in evidence.
Eurotas River
Antique Map of Classical City of Sparta (based on ancient sources and not archaeology).
The theater of ancient Sparta with Mt. Taygetus in the background.
Ruins of the Temple of Artemis Orthia
Remaining section of wall that surrounded ancient Sparta
The Menelaion
Lycurgus
Ancient Sparta.
Medieval depiction of Sparta from the Nuremberg Chronicle (1493)
Structure of the Spartan Constitution
Name vase of the Spartan artist known as the Rider Painter (Laconian black-figured kylix, c. 550–530 BC)
Jean-Pierre Saint-Ours, The Selection of Children in Sparta, 1785. A Neoclassical imaging of what Plutarch describes.
Bronze appliqué of Spartan manufacture, possibly depicting Orestes, 550–525 BC (Getty Villa)
The so-called Leonidas sculpture (5th century BC), Archaeological Museum of Sparta, Greece
Young Spartans Exercising by Edgar Degas (1834–1917)

Agesilaus II – king

Thebes, Greece

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City in Boeotia, Central Greece.

City in Boeotia, Central Greece.

Interior of the Archaeological Museum of Thebes
Exhibit at the museum
Theban workshop (Oinochoe type), 7th century BC
Topographic map of ancient Thebes
Ancient coin depicting a Boeotian shield, AM of Thebes
Silver stater of Thebes (405-395 BC). Obverse: Boeotian shield, reverse: Head of bearded Dionysus.
Map of Greece during the height of Theban power in 362 BC, showing Theban, Spartan and Athenian power blocks
Ruins of Thebes
The Duchy of Athens and the other Greek and Latin states of southern Greece, ca. 1210
View of Thebes (1819) by Hugh William Williams
Thebes, 1842 by Carl Rottmann
Popular festival at Thebes, 1880s
A bust of Pindar
Entrance to the archaeological museum
Monastery of Transfiguration

Although Thebes had traditionally been antagonistic to whichever state led the Greek world, siding with the Persians when they invaded against the Athenian-Spartan alliance, siding with Sparta when Athens seemed omnipotent, and famously derailing the Spartan invasion of Persia by Agesilaus.

Stater of the Boeotian League minted c. 364 - 362 BC by Epaminondas, whose name EΠ-AMI is inscribed on the reverse

Epaminondas

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Greek general of Thebes and statesman of the 4th century BC who transformed the Ancient Greek city-state, leading it out of Spartan subjugation into a pre-eminent position in Greek politics called the Theban Hegemony.

Greek general of Thebes and statesman of the 4th century BC who transformed the Ancient Greek city-state, leading it out of Spartan subjugation into a pre-eminent position in Greek politics called the Theban Hegemony.

Stater of the Boeotian League minted c. 364 - 362 BC by Epaminondas, whose name EΠ-AMI is inscribed on the reverse
Epaminondas defending Pelopidas at the siege of Mantinea (385 BC)
The Battle of Leuctra (371 BC), showing Epaminondas's tactical advances
Messenia in the classical period
The Theban hegemony; power-blocks in Greece in the decade up to 362 BC
Isaak Walraven, The Death of Epaminondas (1726), Rijksmuseum Amsterdam
Epaminondas, an idealized figure in the grounds of Stowe House

Some episodes of Epaminondas's life can be found in Plutarch's "Lives" of Pelopidas and Agesilaus II, who were contemporaries.

Achaemenid Empire

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Ancient Iranian empire based in Western Asia that was founded by Cyrus the Great in 550 BC. It reached its greatest extent under Xerxes I, who conquered most of northern and central ancient Greece.

Ancient Iranian empire based in Western Asia that was founded by Cyrus the Great in 550 BC. It reached its greatest extent under Xerxes I, who conquered most of northern and central ancient Greece.

The Achaemenid Empire at its greatest territorial extent under the rule of Darius I (522 BC–486 BC)
The Achaemenid Empire at its greatest territorial extent under the rule of Darius I (522 BC–486 BC)
Family tree of the Achaemenid rulers.
Map of the expansion process of Achaemenid territories
Cyrus the Great is said, in the Bible, to have liberated the Hebrew captives in Babylon to resettle and rebuild Jerusalem, earning him an honored place in Judaism.
The tomb of Cyrus the Great, founder of the Achaemenid Empire. At Pasargadae, Iran.
The Achaemenid Empire at its greatest extent, c. 500 BC
The Persian queen Atossa, daughter of Cyrus the Great, sister-wife of Cambyses II, Darius the Great's wife, and mother of Xerxes the Great
Map showing events of the first phases of the Greco-Persian Wars
Greek hoplite and Persian warrior depicted fighting, on an ancient kylix, 5th century BC
Achaemenid king fighting hoplites, seal and seal holder, Cimmerian Bosporus.
Achaemenid gold ornaments, Brooklyn Museum
Persian Empire timeline including important events and territorial evolution – 550–323 BC
Relief showing Darius I offering lettuces to the Egyptian deity Amun-Ra Kamutef, Temple of Hibis
The 24 countries subject to the Achaemenid Empire at the time of Darius, on the Egyptian statue of Darius I.
The Battle of Issus, between Alexander the Great on horseback to the left, and Darius III in the chariot to the right, represented in a Pompeii mosaic dated 1st century BC – Naples National Archaeological Museum
Alexander's first victory over Darius, the Persian king depicted in medieval European style in the 15th century romance The History of Alexander's Battles
Frataraka dynasty ruler Vadfradad I (Autophradates I). 3rd century BC. Istakhr (Persepolis) mint.
Dārēv I (Darios I) used for the first time the title of mlk (King). 2nd century BC.
Winged sphinx from the Palace of Darius in Susa, Louvre
Daric of Artaxerxes II
Volume of annual tribute per district, in the Achaemenid Empire, according to Herodotus.
Achaemenid tax collector, calculating on an Abax or Abacus, according to the Darius Vase (340–320 BC).
Letter from the Satrap of Bactria to the governor of Khulmi, concerning camel keepers, 353 BC
Relief of throne-bearing soldiers in their native clothing at the tomb of Xerxes I, demonstrating the satrapies under his rule.
Achaemenid king killing a Greek hoplite. c. 500 BC–475 BC, at the time of Xerxes I. Metropolitan Museum of Art.
Persian soldiers (left) fighting against Scythians. Cylinder seal impression.
Color reconstruction of Achaemenid infantry on the Alexander Sarcophagus (end of 4th century BC).
Seal of Darius the Great hunting in a chariot, reading "I am Darius, the Great King" in Old Persian (𐎠𐎭𐎶𐏐𐎭𐎠𐎼𐎹𐎺𐎢𐏁𐎴 𐏋, "adam Dārayavaʰuš xšāyaθiya"), as well as in Elamite and Babylonian. The word "great" only appears in Babylonian. British Museum.
Achaemenid calvalryman in the satrapy of Hellespontine Phrygia, Altıkulaç Sarcophagus, early 4th century BC.
Armoured cavalry: Achaemenid Dynast of Hellespontine Phrygia attacking a Greek psiloi, Altıkulaç Sarcophagus, early 4th century BC.
Reconstitution of Persian landing ships at the Battle of Marathon.
Greek ships against Achaemenid ships at the Battle of Salamis.
Iconic relief of lion and bull fighting, Apadana of Persepolis
Achaemenid golden bowl with lioness imagery of Mazandaran
The ruins of Persepolis
A section of the Old Persian part of the trilingual Behistun inscription. Other versions are in Babylonian and Elamite.
A copy of the Behistun inscription in Aramaic on a papyrus. Aramaic was the lingua franca of the empire.
An Achaemenid drinking vessel
Bas-relief of Farvahar at Persepolis
Tomb of Artaxerxes III in Persepolis
The Mausoleum at Halicarnassus, one of the Seven wonders of the ancient world, was built by Greek architects for the local Persian satrap of Caria, Mausolus (Scale model)
Achamenid dynasty timeline
Reconstruction of the Palace of Darius at Susa. The palace served as a model for Persepolis.
Lion on a decorative panel from Darius I the Great's palace, Louvre
Ruins of Throne Hall, Persepolis
Apadana Hall, Persian and Median soldiers at Persepolis
Lateral view of tomb of Cambyses II, Pasargadae, Iran
Plaque with horned lion-griffins. The Metropolitan Museum of Art

Artaxerxes II became involved in a war with Persia's erstwhile allies, the Spartans, who, under Agesilaus II, invaded Asia Minor.

Sparta in Ancient Greece

Pausanias (king of Sparta)

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The Agiad King of Sparta; the son of Pleistoanax.

The Agiad King of Sparta; the son of Pleistoanax.

Sparta in Ancient Greece

Following his trial, Pausanias disappears from the sources until 396, probably because he disapproved Sparta's renewed imperialist policy conducted by the Eurypontids, Agis and his successor Agesilaus II, notably against Elis, Thessaly, and the expedition against the Persian Empire.

Agis II

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Agis II (died c. 399 BC) was the 18th Eurypontid king of Sparta, the eldest son of Archidamus II by his first wife, and half-brother of Agesilaus II.

Pharnabazus II, ruled as Satrap of Hellespontine Phrygia circa 422–387 BC.

Pharnabazus II

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Persian soldier and statesman, and Satrap of Hellespontine Phrygia.

Persian soldier and statesman, and Satrap of Hellespontine Phrygia.

Pharnabazus II, ruled as Satrap of Hellespontine Phrygia circa 422–387 BC.
Pharnabazus was Satrap of Hellespontine Phrygia.
Coinage of Pharnabazos, circa 398-396/5 BC, Kyzikos, Mysia. Obv: Legend ΦΑΡ-Ν-[A]-BA ("FAR-N-[A]-BA", for Pharnabazos), head of Pharnabazos, wearing the satrapal cap tied below his chin, with diadem. Rev: Ship's prow left, with a griffin and prophylactic eye; two dolphins downward; below, a tuna.
The assassination of the exiled Athenian general Alcibiades may have been organized by Pharnabazes, at the request of Sparta.
An Athenian mercenary peltast (left) supporting an Achaemenid knight of Hellespontine Phrygia (center) attacking a Greek psilos (right), Altıkulaç Sarcophagus, early 4th century BCE.
Meeting between Spartan King Agesilaus (left) and Pharnabazus (right) in 395 BC, after which Agesilaus left Hellespontine Phrygia proper.
Pharnabazus funded the rebuilding the walls of Athens, and provided his seamen as manpower, in 393 BC.
Achaemenid campaign of Pharnabazus II against Egypt in 373 BC.
Coinage of Pharnabazus II, Tarsos, Cilicia.
Claire Bloom as Barsine, granddaughter of Pharnabazus, and Richard Burton as Alexander the Great, in Alexander the Great (1956 film).
Family tree after Pharnabazus II.

Hellespontine Phrygia was attacked and ravaged by the Spartan king Agesilaos in 396-395 BCE, who particularly laid waste to the area around Daskyleion, the capital of Hellenistic Phrygia.