A report on Andrew Jackson and Cherokee

Portrait by Ralph Eleaser Whiteside Earl, c. undefined 1835
Young Jackson Refusing to Clean Major Coffin's Boots (1876 lithograph)
Great Smoky Mountains
Notice of reward offered by Jackson for return of an enslaved man
An annotated copy of a hand-painted Catawba deerskin map of the tribes between Charleston (left) and Virginia (right) following the displacements of a century of disease and enslavement and the 1715–7 Yamasee War. The Cherokee are labelled as "Cherrikies".
General Andrew Jackson as pictured in Harper's Magazine, Vol 28, "War with the Creek Indians", page 605, 1864
After the Anglo-Cherokee War, bitterness remained between the two groups. In 1765, Henry Timberlake took three Cherokee chiefs to London meet the Crown and help strengthen the newly declared peace.
In the Treaty of Fort Jackson, the Muscogee surrendered large parts of present-day Alabama and Georgia.
Portrait of Major Ridge in 1834, from History of the Indian Tribes of North America.
General Andrew Jackson by John Wesley Jarvis, c. undefined 1819
Cherokee National Council building, New Echota
The Battle of New Orleans. General Andrew Jackson stands on the parapet of his defenses as his troops repulse attacking Highlanders, by painter Edward Percy Moran in 1910.
Tah-Chee (Dutch), A Cherokee Chief, 1837
Jackson at the Battle of New Orleans, painted by Thomas Sully in 1845 from an earlier portrait he had completed from life in 1824
Chief John Ross, c. 1840
Trial of Robert Ambrister during the Seminole War. Ambrister was one of two British subjects executed by General Jackson. (1848)
Cherokee beadwork sampler, made at Dwight Mission, Indian Territory, 19th century, collection of the Oklahoma History Center
Teracotta bust of General Jackson by William Rush, 1819
Cól-lee, a Band Chief, painted by George Catlin, 1834
Jackson in 1824, painted by Thomas Sully
Cherokee confederates reunion in New Orleans, 1902.
1828 election results
William Penn (Cherokee), His Shield (Yanktonai), Levi Big Eagle (Yanktonai), Bear Ghost (Yanktonai) and Black Moustache (Sisseton).
President Andrew Jackson New York: Ritchie & Co. (1860)
Map of present-day Cherokee Nation Tribal Jurisdiction Area (red)
Jackson's Indian Removal Act and subsequent treaties resulted in the forced removal of the major tribes of the Southeast from their traditional territories, many along the Trail of Tears.
Sequoyah, the inventor of the Cherokee syllabary
Portrait of Jackson by Earl, 1830
Flag of the Cherokee Nation
William C. Rives, Jackson's Minister to France, successfully negotiated a reparations treaty with France in 1831.
Cherokee Nation Historic Courthouse in Tahlequah, Oklahoma.
1832 election results
The Cherokee Female Seminary was built in 1889 by the Cherokee in Indian Territory.
1833 Democratic cartoon shows Jackson destroying the "Devil's Bank"
Flag of the Eastern Band Cherokee
Richard Lawrence's attempt on Jackson's life, as depicted in an 1835 etching
Flag of the United Keetoowah Band of Cherokee Indians
USS Porpoise (1836), a brig ship laid down in 1835 and launched in May 1836; used in the U.S. Exploring Expedition
The Mount Tabor Indian Community flag of primarily Cherokee as well as Choctaw, Chickasaw and Muscogee-Creek people located in Rusk County, Texas.
A New York newspaper blamed the Panic of 1837 on Andrew Jackson, depicted in spectacles and top hat.
Mezzotint after a Daguerreotype of Jackson by Mathew Brady, April 15, 1845
Tennessee Gentleman, portrait of Jackson, c. 1831, from the collection of The Hermitage
Andrew Jackson as Grand Master of Tennessee, 1822
Equestrian statue of Jackson, Jackson County Courthouse, Kansas City, Missouri, commissioned by Judge Harry S. Truman
Jackson portrait on obverse $20 bill
2-cent red stamp
2-cent green stamp
The tomb of Andrew and Rachel Jackson located at The Hermitage

In 1794, Jackson formed a partnership with fellow lawyer John Overton, dealing in claims for land reserved by treaty for the Cherokee and Chickasaw.

- Andrew Jackson

Cherokee warriors led by Major Ridge played a major role in General Andrew Jackson's victory at the Battle of Horseshoe Bend.

- Cherokee
Portrait by Ralph Eleaser Whiteside Earl, c. undefined 1835

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Routes of southern removals

Indian removal

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The United States government policy of forced displacement of self-governing tribes of Native Americans from their ancestral homelands in the eastern United States to lands west of the Mississippi River – specifically, to a designated Indian Territory .

The United States government policy of forced displacement of self-governing tribes of Native Americans from their ancestral homelands in the eastern United States to lands west of the Mississippi River – specifically, to a designated Indian Territory .

Routes of southern removals
Representatives of the Five Civilized Tribes: (clockwise from upper left) Sequoyah, Pushmataha, Selecta, Osceola, and a typical Chickasaw

The Indian Removal Act, the key law which authorized the removal of Native tribes, was signed by Andrew Jackson in 1830.

After the passage of the Indian Removal Act in 1831, approximately 60,000 members of the Cherokee, Muscogee (Creek), Seminole, Chickasaw, and Choctaw nations (including thousands of their black slaves) were forcibly removed from their ancestral homelands, with thousands dying during the Trail of Tears.

Muscogee Creek bandolier bag, c. 1820, Birmingham Museum of Art

Muscogee

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The Muscogee, also known as the Mvskoke, Muscogee Creek, and the Muscogee Creek Confederacy ( in the Muscogee language), are a group of related indigenous (Native American) peoples of the Southeastern Woodlands in the United States of America.

The Muscogee, also known as the Mvskoke, Muscogee Creek, and the Muscogee Creek Confederacy ( in the Muscogee language), are a group of related indigenous (Native American) peoples of the Southeastern Woodlands in the United States of America.

Muscogee Creek bandolier bag, c. 1820, Birmingham Museum of Art
Etowah Mound C, was part of a precontact Mississippian culture site, occupied by ancestors of the Muscogee people from c. 1000–1550 CE, in Cartersville, Georgia
Hernando de Soto and his men burn Mabila, after a surprise attack by Chief Tuskaloosa and his people in 1540; painting by Herb Roe, 2008
The protohistoric King Site, occupied during the mid-1500s
A raiding party against Spanish missions in Florida passes the Ocmulgee trading post
Yamacraw leader Tomochichi and nephew in 1733
Yamacraw Creek Native Americans meet with the trustee of the colony of Georgia in England, July 1734. Notice the Native American boy (in a blue coat) and woman (in a red dress) in European clothing.
William Augustus Bowles (1763–1805) was also known as Estajoca, his Muscogee name.
Painting (1805) of Benjamin Hawkins on his plantation, instructing Muscogee Creek in European technology
The Great Comet of 1811, as drawn by William Henry Smyth
The New Madrid earthquake was interpreted by the Muscogee to support the Shawnee's resistance.
Menawa was one of the principal leaders of the Red Sticks. After the war, he continued to oppose white encroachment on Muscogee lands, visiting Washington, D.C. in 1826 to protest the treaty of Indian Springs. Painted by Charles Bird King, 1837.
Depiction of Red Eagle's surrender to Andrew Jackson after the Battle of Horseshoe Bend. Jackson was so impressed with Weatherford's boldness that he let him go.
Charles Bird King's portrait of William McIntosh
Members of the Creek Nation in Oklahoma around 1877. They included men of mixed Creek, European and African ancestry.
Selocta (or Shelocta) was a Muscogee chief.
Muscogee Creek land cessions 1733–1832
Ceded area as deemed by the Treaty of Fort Jackson in 1814
Muscogee Creek bike messenger, originally from Okmulgee, Oklahoma
Micah Wesley, Muscogee Creek-Kiowa artist and DJ

Once the northern Muscogee Creek rebellion had been put down by General Andrew Jackson with the aid of the Southern Muscogee Creek, the Muscogee nation was forced to sign the Treaty of Fort Jackson, which ceded much land to the US, including land belonging to the Southern Muscogee who had fought alongside Jackson.

The Ochese Creeks joined the Yamasee, burning trading posts, and raiding back-country settlers, but the revolt ran low on gunpowder and was put down by Carolinian militia and their Cherokee allies.

The Trail of Tears memorial at the New Echota Historic Site in Georgia, which honors the Cherokees who died on the Trail of Tears

Trail of Tears

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Series of forced displacements of approximately 60,000 American Indians of the "Five Civilized Tribes" between 1830 and 1850 by the United States government.

Series of forced displacements of approximately 60,000 American Indians of the "Five Civilized Tribes" between 1830 and 1850 by the United States government.

The Trail of Tears memorial at the New Echota Historic Site in Georgia, which honors the Cherokees who died on the Trail of Tears
A map of the process of Indian Removal, 1830–1838. Oklahoma is depicted in light yellow-green.
George W. Harkins, Choctaw chief.
Alexis de Tocqueville, French political thinker and historian
Seminole warrior Tuko-see-mathla, 1834
Selocta (or Shelocta) was a Muscogee chief who appealed to Andrew Jackson to reduce the demands for Creek lands at the signing of the Treaty of Fort Jackson.
Historic Marker in Marion, Arkansas, for the Trail of Tears
Cherokee Principal Chief John Ross, photographed before his death in 1866
Elizabeth "Betsy" Brown Stephens (1903), a Cherokee Indian who walked the Trail of Tears in 1838
A Trail of Tears map of Southern Illinois from the USDA – U.S. Forest Service
Walkway map at the Cherokee Removal Memorial Park in Tennessee depicting the routes of the Cherokee on the Trail of Tears, June 2020
Map of National Historic trails

Members of the so-called "Five Civilized Tribes"—the Cherokee, Muscogee (Creek), Seminole, Chickasaw, and Choctaw nations (including thousands of their black slaves )—were forcibly removed from their ancestral homelands in the Southeastern United States to areas to the west of the Mississippi River that had been designated Indian Territory.

Although the effort was vehemently opposed by some, including U.S. Congressman Davy Crockett of Tennessee, President Andrew Jackson was able to gain Congressional passage of the Indian Removal Act of 1830, which authorized the government to extinguish any Indian title to land claims in the Southeast.

Gallery of the Five Civilized Tribes: Sequoyah (Cherokee), Pushmataha (Choctaw), Selecta (Muscogee/Creek), a "Characteristic Chickasaw Head", and Osceola (Seminole). The portraits were drawn or painted between 1775 and 1850.

Five Civilized Tribes

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Gallery of the Five Civilized Tribes: Sequoyah (Cherokee), Pushmataha (Choctaw), Selecta (Muscogee/Creek), a "Characteristic Chickasaw Head", and Osceola (Seminole). The portraits were drawn or painted between 1775 and 1850.
The Mississippian culture was a mound building Native American urban culture that flourished in the South and Eastern United States before the arrival of Europeans.
Routes of southern removals to the first Indian Territory of the Five Civilized Tribes
Cherokee Nation Historic Courthouse in Tahlequah, built in 1849, is the oldest public building standing in Oklahoma.

The term Five Civilized Tribes was applied by European Americans in the colonial and early federal period in the history of the United States to the five major Native American nations in the Southeast—the Cherokee, Chickasaw, Choctaw, Creek (Muscogee), and Seminole.

In the early 19th century, under such leaders as Andrew Jackson, elected President in 1828, and others, the U.S. government formally initiated Indian Removal - forcing those tribes still living east of the Mississippi River, including The Five Tribes, to lands west of the river.

Indian Territory

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Evolving land area set aside by the United States Government for the relocation of Native Americans who held aboriginal title to their land as a sovereign independent state.

Evolving land area set aside by the United States Government for the relocation of Native Americans who held aboriginal title to their land as a sovereign independent state.

Oklahoma and Indian Territories, 1890
Indian Country 1834 (in Red)
Indian Territory in 1844
United States Department of the Interior map of Indian Territory in 1879
Map of the gradual opening of Oklahoma Territory to white settlers and the Indian Territory, annexed by Oklahoma in 1907.
The Louisiana Purchase was one of several historical territorial additions to the United States.
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Map of Indian territory 1836
Kansas, Nebraska, Minnesota Territories 1855
Two Wichita women in summer dress, 1870
Artist's conception of Spiro Mounds, a Caddoan Mississippian site, as seen from the west
Caddo village near Anadarko, 1870s
The Mississippian culture was a mound-building Native American culture that flourished in North America before the arrival of Europeans.
Cherokee Nation Historic Courthouse in Tahlequah, built in 1849, is the oldest public building standing in Oklahoma.
The historic Choctaw Capitol in Tuskahoma.
Jennie Bobb, left, and her daughter, Nellie Longhat, both members of the Delaware Nation, Oklahoma, 1915
Peoria beaded moccasins, c. 1860, collection of the Oklahoma History Center
Tipis painted by George Catlin c. 1830
Plains Indians at time of European contact and current homelands.
Pre-contact distribution of the Western Siouan languages
Pre-contact distribution of Algonquian languages
Pre-contact distribution of Northern Uto-Aztecan languages

Indian removal became the official policy of the United States government with the passage of the 1830 Indian Removal Act, formulated by President Andrew Jackson.

But this was where the Choctaw and Cherokee tribes had just begun to settle, and the two nations objected strongly.

William Weatherford surrendering to Andrew Jackson

Creek War

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Regional war between opposing Indigenous American Creek factions, European empires and the United States, taking place largely in modern-day Alabama and along the Gulf Coast.

Regional war between opposing Indigenous American Creek factions, European empires and the United States, taking place largely in modern-day Alabama and along the Gulf Coast.

William Weatherford surrendering to Andrew Jackson
Painting (1805) of Benjamin Hawkins on his plantation, instructing Muscogee Creek in European technology
Map of battle sites in the Creek War
U.S. troops storm the breastworks at Horseshoe Bend
Territory ceded by the Creek Confederation in 1814 under the Treaty of Fort Jackson

The United States government formed an alliance with the Choctaw Nation and Cherokee Nation (the traditional enemies of the Creeks), along with the remaining Creeks to put down the rebellion.

The war effectively ended with the Treaty of Fort Jackson (August 1814), when General Andrew Jackson forced the Creek confederacy to surrender more than 21 million acres in what is now southern Georgia and central Alabama.

President Andrew Jackson called for an American Indian Removal Act in his first (1829) State of the Union address.

Indian Removal Act

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President Andrew Jackson called for an American Indian Removal Act in his first (1829) State of the Union address.
Congressional debates concerning the Indian Removal Act, April 1830

The Indian Removal Act was signed into law on May 28, 1830, by United States President Andrew Jackson.

The Cherokee worked together to stop this relocation, but were unsuccessful; they were eventually forcibly removed by the United States government in a march to the west that later became known as the Trail of Tears, which has been described as an act of genocide, because many died during the removals.

Native Americans in the United States

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Native Americans, also known as First Americans, Indigenous Americans, American Indians, and other terms, are the Indigenous peoples of the United States, including Hawaii and territories of the United States, and other times limited to the mainland.

Native Americans, also known as First Americans, Indigenous Americans, American Indians, and other terms, are the Indigenous peoples of the United States, including Hawaii and territories of the United States, and other times limited to the mainland.

Comanche Indians Chasing Buffalo with Lances and Bows, by George Catlin
The Cultural areas of pre-Columbian North America, according to Alfred Kroeber
This map shows the approximate location of the ice-free corridor and specific Paleoindian sites (Clovis theory).
A Folsom point for a spear
Artists conception of Ohio Hopewell culture Shriver Circle with the Mound City Group to the left
Cahokia, the largest Mississippian culture site
Map showing the approximate locations of the Native American nations circa 16th century
Discovery of the Mississippi by William Henry Powell (1823–1879) is a Romantic depiction of Spanish explorer de Soto's seeing the Mississippi River for the first time. It hangs in the United States Capitol rotunda.
1882 studio portrait of the (then) last surviving Six Nations warriors who fought with the British in the War of 1812
Early Native American tribal territories color-coded by linguistic group
The Treaty of Penn with the Indians by Benjamin West, painted in 1771
Yamacraw Creek Native Americans meet with the Trustee of the colony of Georgia in England, July 1734. The painting shows a Native American boy (in a blue coat) and woman (in a red dress) in European clothing.
Benjamin Hawkins, seen here on his plantation, teaches Creek Native Americans how to use European technology, painted in 1805
Native-controlled territories in the West, 1836
Tecumseh was the Shawnee leader of Tecumseh's War who attempted to organize an alliance of Native American tribes throughout North America.
The Rescue sculpture stood outside the U.S. Capitol between 1853 and 1958. A work commissioned by the U.S. government, its sculptor Horatio Greenough wrote that it was "to convey the idea of the triumph of the whites over the savage tribes".
Mass grave for the dead Lakota following the 1890 Wounded Knee Massacre, which took place during the Indian Wars in the 19th century
Ely Parker (of the Seneca people) was a Union Civil War general who wrote the terms of surrender between the United States and the Confederate States of America.
Republican Charles Curtis, of Kaw, Osage, Potawatomi, French and British ancestry from Kansas, was 31st vice president of the United States, 1929–1933, serving with Republican Herbert Hoover.
General Douglas MacArthur meeting Navajo, Pima, Pawnee and other Native American troops
A Navajo man on horseback in Monument Valley, Arizona, United States
Byron Mallott, an Alaskan Native, was the lieutenant governor of Alaska.
Proportion of Indigenous Americans in each U.S. state, the District of Columbia, and Puerto Rico as of the 2020 United States Census
This Census Bureau map depicts the locations of differing Native American groups, including Indian reservations, as of 2000. Note the concentration (blue) in modern-day Oklahoma in the South West, which was once designated as an Indian Territory before statehood in 1907.
Indian reservations in the continental United States
Native peoples are concerned about the effects of abandoned uranium mines on or near their lands.
National Indian Youth Council demonstrations, Bureau of Indian Affairs Office
A discriminatory sign posted above a bar. Birney, Montana, 1941
Chief Plenty Coups and seven Crow prisoners under guard at Crow agency, Montana, 1887
Protest against the name of the Washington Redskins in Minneapolis, November 2014
Secotan Indians' dance in North Carolina. Watercolor by John White, 1585
Sandia Casino, owned by the Sandia Pueblo of New Mexico
Three Native American women in Warm Springs Indian Reservation, Wasco County, Oregon (1902)
Geronimo, Chiricahua Apache leader. Photograph by Frank A. Rinehart (1898).
Pre-contact: distribution of North American language families, including northern Mexico
Oklahoma Cherokee language immersion school student writing in the Cherokee syllabary
The Cherokee language taught to preschoolers as a first language, at New Kituwah Academy
Maize grown by Native Americans
Ojibwe baby waits on a cradleboard while parents tend wild rice crops (Minnesota, 1940).
Frybread, made into an Indian taco.
Makah Native Americans and a whale, The King of the Seas in the Hands of the Makahs, 1910 photograph by Asahel Curtis
Saint Kateri Tekakwitha, the patron of ecologists, exiles, and orphans, was canonized by the Catholic Church.
Baptism of Pocahontas was painted in 1840 by John Gadsby Chapman, who depicts Pocahontas, wearing white, being baptized Rebecca by Anglican minister Alexander Whiteaker (left) in Jamestown, Virginia. This event is believed to have taken place either in 1613 or 1614.
Susan La Flesche Picotte was the first Native American woman to become a physician in the United States.
Jim Thorpe—gold medalist at the 1912 Olympics, in the pentathlon and decathlon events
Ball players from the Choctaw and Lakota tribe in a 19th-century lithograph by George Catlin
Billy Mills crosses the finish line at the end of the 10,000-meter race at the 1964 Tokyo Olympics.
Fancy Dancer at the Seafair Indian Days Pow-Wow, Daybreak Star Cultural Center, Seattle, Washington
Jake Fragua, Jemez Pueblo from New Mexico
Lillian Gross, described as a "Mixed Blood" by the Smithsonian source, was of Cherokee and European-American heritage. She identified with the Cherokee culture in which she was raised.
The 1725 return of an Osage bride from a trip to Paris, France. The Osage woman was married to a French soldier.
Five Indians and a Captive, painted by Carl Wimar, 1855
Charles Eastman was one of the first Native Americans to become certified as a medical doctor, after he graduated from Boston University.
Buffalo Soldiers, 1890. The nickname was given to the "Black Cavalry" by the Native American tribes they fought.
Ben Nighthorse Campbell, one of only four Native Americans elected to the U.S. Senate
Sharice Davids became one of the first two Native American women elected to the U.S. House of Representatives.
Deb Haaland became one of the first two Native American women elected to the U.S. House of Representatives.
Yvette Herrell became the first Cherokee woman elected to the U.S. House of Representatives.
Ada E. Brown, a citizen of the Choctaw Nation with mixed-African-American heritage, nominated by President Donald Trump in 2019 to be a federal judge in Texas
Members of the Creek (Muscogee) Nation in Oklahoma around 1877; they include men with some European and African ancestry.

At the outbreak of the war, for example, the minority party of the Cherokees gave its allegiance to the Confederacy, while originally the majority party went for the North.

Under President Andrew Jackson, United States Congress passed the Indian Removal Act of 1830, which authorized the President to conduct treaties to exchange Native American land east of the Mississippi River for lands west of the river.

The Battle of Horseshoe Bend

Battle of Horseshoe Bend

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Fought during the War of 1812 in the Mississippi Territory, now central Alabama.

Fought during the War of 1812 in the Mississippi Territory, now central Alabama.

The Battle of Horseshoe Bend
Battle positions
Horseshoe Bend Battlefield
Map of Alabama during the War of 1812
Battle of Horseshoe Bend

On March 27, 1814, United States forces and Indian allies under Major General Andrew Jackson defeated the Red Sticks, a part of the Creek Indian tribe who opposed American expansion, effectively ending the Creek War.

Added to the militia units were the 39th United States Infantry and about 600 Cherokee, Choctaw, and Lower Creek, fighting against the Red Stick Creek warriors.

Van Buren by Mathew Brady, c. 1855–1858

Martin Van Buren

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American lawyer and statesman who served as the eighth president of the United States from 1837 to 1841.

American lawyer and statesman who served as the eighth president of the United States from 1837 to 1841.

Van Buren by Mathew Brady, c. 1855–1858
Van Buren's birthplace by John Warner Barber
Baptism record indicating the Dutch spelling of Van Buren's first name, "Maarten"
Hannah Van Buren
Painting of Van Buren by Daniel Dickinson, c. 1820s
Mrs Floride Calhoun, a leader of the "petticoats"
A painting of Van Buren by Francis Alexander, c. undefined 1830
1836 electoral vote results
Painting of Van Buren by Henry Inman, c. 1837–38
The modern balaam and his ass, an 1837 caricature placing the blame for the Panic of 1837 and the perilous state of the banking system on outgoing President Andrew Jackson, shown riding a donkey, while President Martin Van Buren comments approvingly
A United States Marine Corps boat expedition searching the Everglades during the Second Seminole War
"Destruction of the Caroline", illustration by John Charles Dent (1881)
1840 electoral vote results
Daguerreotype of Van Buren by Mathew Brady, c. 1849–50
Daguerreotype of Martin Van Buren, circa 1855
1858 portrait by GPA Healy, on display at the White House
Gubernatorial portrait of Martin Van Buren by Daniel Huntington in The Civil War

Following the 1824 presidential election, Van Buren sought to re-establish a two-party system with partisan differences based on ideology rather than personalities or sectional differences; he supported Andrew Jackson's candidacy in the 1828 presidential election with this goal in mind.

The 1835 Treaty of New Echota signed by government officials and representatives of the Cherokee tribe had established terms under which the Cherokees ceded their territory in the southeast and agreed to move west to Oklahoma.