Arctic Ocean and Related Topics

Atlantic Ocean

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Second-largest of the world's five oceans, with an area of about 106460000 km2.

The Aethiopian Ocean in a 1710 French map of Africa

False color map of ocean depth in the Atlantic basin

As the Gulf Stream meanders across the North Atlantic from the North American east coast to Western Europe its temperature drops by 20 C-change.

Path of the thermohaline circulation. Purple paths represent deep-water currents, while blue paths represent surface currents.

In the subpolar gyre of the North Atlantic warm subtropical waters are transformed into colder subpolar and polar waters. In the Labrador Sea this water flows back to the subtropical gyre.

Waves in the trade winds in the Atlantic Ocean—areas of converging winds that move along the same track as the prevailing wind—create instabilities in the atmosphere that may lead to the formation of hurricanes.

Tropical wet and dry climate in San Andrés Island Caribbean, Colombia

Iceberg A22A in the South Atlantic Ocean

Excavation of the Ertebølle middens in 1880

Based on the medieval Íslendingasögur sagas, including the Grœnlendinga saga, this interpretative map of the "Norse World" shows that Norse knowledge of the Americas and the Atlantic remained limited.

The Atlantic Gyres influenced the Portuguese discoveries and trading port routes, here shown in the India Run ("Carreira da Índia"), which would be developed in subsequent years.

Embarked and disembarked slaves in the Atlantic slave trade 1525–1863 (first and last slave voyages)

Capture of Atlantic north-west cod in million tons

Marine debris strewn over the beaches of the South Atlantic Inaccessible Island

As one component of the interconnected World Ocean, it is connected in the north to the Arctic Ocean, to the Pacific Ocean in the southwest, the Indian Ocean in the southeast, and the Southern Ocean in the south (other definitions describe the Atlantic as extending southward to Antarctica).

Greenland

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Island country that is part of the Kingdom of Denmark.

Areas of Independence I and Independence II cultures around Independence Fjord

The Kingittorsuaq Runestone from Kingittorsuaq Island (Middle Ages)

One of the last contemporary written mentions of the Norse Greenlanders records a marriage which took place in 1408 in the church of Hvalsey – today the best-preserved Nordic ruins in Greenland. The married couple then travelled to Iceland, which is why the account has been preserved.

An English map of 1747, based on Hans Egede's descriptions and misconceptions, by Emanuel Bowen

The orthography and vocabulary of the Greenlandic language is governed by Oqaasileriffik, the Greenlandic language secretariat, located in the Ilimmarfik University of Greenland, Nuuk.

The United States has operated Thule Air Base since the 1950s.

Sermiligaaq. Greenland has more than 60 settlements.

Greenland bedrock, at current elevation above sea level

Aurora Borealis, the northern lights at the sky in Greenland

The Greenland Dog was brought from Siberia 1,000 years ago.

Humpback whale, Megaptera novaeangliae, in Disko Bay near Ilulissat

The special territories of the European Union (pre 31 January 2020)

Nuuk is Greenland's capital and the seat of the government.

A proportional representation of Greenland exports, 2019

Greenland electricity production by source

Air Greenland operates passenger and cargo freight services by air from, to and across Greenland.

Arctic Umiaq Line operates passenger and freight services by sea across Greenland.

A bilingual sign in Nuuk, displaying the Danish and Kalaallisut for "Parking forbidden for all vehicles"

Most Greenlandic villages, including Nanortalik, have their own church.

Nive Nielsen, Greenlandic singer and songwriter

Panel discussion with Greenlandic movie maker Inuk Silis Høegh at the launch of his movie about groundbreaking Greenlandic band Sumé

Teletaarnet Headquarters in Nuuk Greenland

Estimated extent of Arctic cultures in Greenland from 900 AD to 1500 AD. Colored areas on each map indicate the extent and migration patterns over time of the Dorset, Thule, and Norse cultures.

Pilersuisoq Supermarket in Kangerlussuaq

It is located between the Arctic and Atlantic oceans, east of the Canadian Arctic Archipelago.

Sea ice

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Sea ice arises as seawater freezes.

Hypothetical sea ice dynamics scenario showing some of the most common sea ice features.

Distinction between 1st year sea ice (FY), 2nd year (SY), multiyear (MY) and old ice.

Satellite image of sea ice forming near St. Matthew Island in the Bering Sea.

Seasonal variation and annual decrease of Arctic sea ice volume as estimated by measurement backed numerical modelling.

Volume of arctic sea ice over time using a polar coordinate system draw method (time goes counter clockwise; one cycle per year)

As ice melts, the liquid water collects in depressions on the surface and deepens them, forming these melt ponds in the Arctic. These fresh water ponds are separated from the salty sea below and around it, until breaks in the ice merge the two.

Rare phenomenon – the formation of ball ice. Stroomi Beach, Tallinn, Estonia.

Aerial view showing an expanse of drift ice offshore Labrador (Eastern Canada) displaying floes of various sizes loosely packed, with open water in several networks of leads. (Scale not available.)

Aerial view showing an expanse of drift ice in southeastern Greenland, comprising loosely packed floes of various sizes, with a lead developing in the centre.(Scale not available.)

Aerial view showing an expanse of drift ice consisting mostly of water. (Scale not available.)

Close-up view inside a drift ice zone: several small rounded floes are separated from each other by slush or grease ice. (Bird at lower right for scale.)

Example of hummocky ice: an accumulation of ice blocks, here about {{convert|20|to|30|cm|abbr=on}} in thickness (with a thin snow cover).

Field example of a pressure ridge. Only the sail (the part of the ridge above the ice surface) is shown in this photograph – the keel is more difficult to document.

Aerial view of the Chukchi Sea between Chukotka and Alaska, displaying a pattern of leads. Much of the open water inside those leads is already covered by new ice (indicated by a slightly lighter blue color)(scale not available).

Change in extent of the Arctic Sea ice between April and August, in 2013.

Sea ice imitates the shoreline along the Kamchatka Peninsula.

Clear view of the Antarctic Peninsula, the Larsen Ice Shelf and the sea ice-covered waters around the region.

Much of the world's sea ice is enclosed within the polar ice packs in the Earth's polar regions: the Arctic ice pack of the Arctic Ocean and the Antarctic ice pack of the Southern Ocean.

Alaska

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State located in the Western United States on the northwest extremity of North America.

A modern Alutiiq dancer in traditional festival garb

The Russian settlement of St. Paul's Harbor (present-day Kodiak town), Kodiak Island, 1814

Miners and prospectors climb the Chilkoot Trail during the 1898 Klondike Gold Rush

U.S. troops navigate snow and ice during the Battle of Attu in May 1943

Alaska's size compared with the 48 contiguous states (Albers equal-area conic projection)

Denali is the highest peak in North America.

Although entirely east of the International Date Line (the triangular kink in the line was agreed upon the US acquisition of Alaska), the Aleutian Islands cross the 180th meridian, such that they contain both the westernmost (Amatignak) and the easternmost (Semisopochnoi) points in the United States

Fairbanks, Alaska's second-largest city and by a significant margin the largest city in Alaska's interior

Juneau, Alaska's third-largest city and its capital

Bethel, the largest city in the Unorganized Borough and in rural Alaska

Homer, showing (from bottom to top) the edge of downtown, its airport and the Spit

Utqiaġvik (Browerville neighborhood near Eben Hopson Middle School shown), known colloquially for many years by the nickname "Top of the World", is the northernmost city in the United States.

Cordova, built in the early 20th century to support the Kennecott Mines and the Copper River and Northwestern Railway, has persevered as a fishing community since their closure.

Alaska has more acreage of public land owned by the federal government than any other state.

Map of the largest racial/ethnic group by borough. Red indicates Native American, blue indicates non-Hispanic white, and green indicates Asian. Darker shades indicate a higher proportion of the population.

St. Michael's Russian Orthodox Cathedral in downtown Sitka

Aerial view of infrastructure at the Prudhoe Bay Oil Field

The Trans-Alaska Pipeline transports oil, Alaska's most financially important export, from the North Slope to Valdez. The heat pipes in the column mounts are pertinent, since they disperse heat upwards and prevent melting of permafrost.

Alaska proven oil reserves peaked in 1973 and have declined more than 60% since then

Alaskan oil production peaked in 1988 and has declined more than 75% since then

Halibut, both as a sport fish and commercially, is important to the state's economy.

A dog team in the Iditarod Trail Sled Dog Race, arguably the most popular winter event in Alaska

Mask Display at Iñupiat Heritage Center in Utqiaġvik

Films featuring Alaskan wolves usually employ domesticated wolf-dog hybrids to stand in for wild wolves.

The Kachemak Bay Campus of the University of Alaska Anchorage, located in downtown Homer

The Sterling Highway, near its intersection with the Seward Highway

The Susitna River bridge on the Denali Highway is 1036 ft long.

Alaska welcome sign on the Klondike Highway

An Alaska Railroad locomotive over a bridge in Girdwood approaching Anchorage (2007)

The White Pass and Yukon Route traverses rugged terrain north of Skagway near the Canada–US border.

The (named after Tustumena Glacier) is one of the state's many ferries, providing service between the Kenai Peninsula, Kodiak Island and the Aleutian Chain.

A Bombardier Dash 8, operated by Era Alaska, on approach to Ted Stevens Anchorage International Airport

The center of state government in Juneau. The large buildings in the background are, from left to right: the Court Plaza Building (known colloquially as the "Spam Can"), the State Office Building (behind), the Alaska Office Building, the John H. Dimond State Courthouse, and the Alaska State Capitol. Many of the smaller buildings in the foreground are also occupied by state government agencies.

A line graph showing the presidential vote by party from 1960 to 2016 in Alaska

Lisa Murkowski, senior United States senator

Dan Sullivan, junior United States senator

Don Young, U.S. representative (at-large) (Deceased)

Bob Bartlett & Ernest Gruening, Alaska's inaugural U.S. Senators, hold the 49 star U.S. Flag after the admission of Alaska as the 49th state.

Ketchikan, one of the places affected by COVID-19 during the 2020 outbreak in Alaska

To the north are the Chukchi and Beaufort seas of the Arctic Ocean, while the Pacific Ocean lies to the south and southwest.

Inuit

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Inuit (ᐃᓄᐃᑦ 'the people', singular: Inuk, ᐃᓄᒃ, dual: Inuuk, ᐃᓅᒃ) are a group of culturally similar indigenous peoples inhabiting the Arctic and subarctic regions of Greenland (Denmark), Canada, and Alaska (United States).

Dorset, Norse, and Thule cultures 900–1500

A European ship coming into contact with Inuit in the ice of Hudson Bay in 1697.

An anonymous 1578 illustration believed to show Kalicho (left), and Arnaq and Nutaaq (right)

Hudson's Bay Company Ships bartering with Inuit off the Upper Savage Islands, Hudson Strait, 1819

Inupiat man in a kayak, Noatak, Alaska, c. 1929 (photo by Edward S. Curtis)

Caribou skin parka from Nunavut with hood for carrying a baby

Kalaallit girl's clothing from Western Greenland

An Inupiat family from Noatak, Alaska, 1929.

Some Inuit (including Alaska Natives) believed that the spirits of their ancestors could be seen in the aurora borealis

An Inuit woman uses a traditional amauti and a modern western stroller

Inuit seal hunter in a kayak, armed with a harpoon

Inuit live throughout most of Northern Canada in the territory of Nunavut, Nunavik in the northern third of Quebec, Nunatsiavut and NunatuKavut in Labrador, and in various parts of the Northwest Territories, particularly around the Arctic Ocean, in the Inuvialuit Settlement Region.

Barents Sea

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Shores of the Barents (Murman) Sea. From "Tabula Russiae", Joan Blaeu's, Amsterdam, 1614.

Phytoplankton bloom in the Barents Sea. The milky-blue colour that dominates the bloom suggests that it contains large numbers of coccolithophores.

Signing of the Russian-Norwegian Treaty, 15 September 2010

Honningsvåg is the most northerly fishing village in Norway

Panoramic view of the Barents sea near Honningsvåg, Norway.

The Barents Sea (, also ; Barentshavet, ; Баренцево море) is a marginal sea of the Arctic Ocean, located off the northern coasts of Norway and Russia and divided between Norwegian and Russian territorial waters.

North Pole

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Point in the Northern Hemisphere where the Earth's axis of rotation meets its surface.

Temporary research station of German-Swiss expedition on the sea ice at the Geographic North Pole. Drillings at the landing site at 90°N showed an average ice thickness of 2.5 metres on April 16, 1990

This pressure ridge at the North Pole is about 1 km long, formed between two ice floes of multi-year ice.

Gerardus Mercator's map of the North Pole from 1595

C.G. Zorgdragers map of the North Pole from 1720

Peary's sledge party at what they claimed was the North Pole, 1909. From left: Ooqueah, Ootah, Henson, Egingwah, and Seeglo.

Icebreaker Arktika, the first surface ship to reach the North Pole

Participants of the first German North Pole expedition 1990 from University of Giessen

The German North Pole expedition 1990, Ski-Doo for local research on pack-ice

MIR submersible, one of the two vehicles that were used in the first ever manned descent to the seabed under the North Pole

Yemelya, an all terrain amphibious vehicle

Arctic ice shrinkages of 2007 compared to 2005 and also compared to the 1979–2000 average.

Sunset over the North Pole at the International Dateline, 2015

Although heavily disputed by modern historians, Peary & his team were given credit for the discovery of the North Pole by the contemporary press.

While the South Pole lies on a continental land mass, the North Pole is located in the middle of the Arctic Ocean amid waters that are almost permanently covered with constantly shifting sea ice.

Polar bear

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Polar bears have evolved adaptations for Arctic life. For example, large furry feet and short, sharp, stocky claws give them good traction on ice.

Bears investigate the submarine USS Honolulu 280 mi from the North Pole

Polar bear jumping on fast ice in Spitsbergen Island, Svalbard Archipelago, Norway

Subadult males frequently play-fight. During the mating season, actual fighting is intense and often leaves scars or broken teeth.

The polar bear's long muzzle and neck help it to search in deep holes for seals, while its powerful hindquarters enable it to drag massive prey

Cubs are born helpless and typically nurse for two and a half years

Road sign warning about the presence of bears. The Norwegian text translates into "Applies to all of Svalbard".

Dogsleds are used for recreational hunting of polar bears in Canada

Map from the U.S. Geological Survey shows projected changes in polar bear habitat from 2001 to 2010 and 2041 to 2050. Red areas indicate loss of optimal polar bear habitat; blue areas indicate gain.

Mothers and cubs have high nutritional requirements, which are not met if the seal-hunting season is too short

Engraving, made by Chukchi carvers in the 1940s on a walrus tusk, depicts polar bears hunting walrus

Greenland's 1911 five kroner note depicting a polar bear

The polar bear (Ursus maritimus) is a hypercarnivorous bear whose native range lies largely within the Arctic Circle, encompassing the Arctic Ocean, its surrounding seas and surrounding land masses.

North America

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Continent in the Northern Hemisphere and almost entirely within the Western Hemisphere.

Map of populous North America showing physical, political and population characteristics as per 2018

The totality of North America seen by the Apollo 16 crew, with Canada being covered by clouds

Landforms and land cover of North America

Principal hydrological divides of Canada, the United States and Mexico

Geologic map of North America published by USGS

North America map of Köppen climate classification

Map of North America in 1702 showing forts, towns and (in solid colors) areas occupied by European settlements

Non-native nations' control and claims over North America c. 1750–2008

Native languages of the US, Canada, Greenland, and Northern Mexico

Percentage of people who identify with a religion in North America, according to 2010–2012 data

Mexican President Peña Nieto, U.S. President Trump, and Canadian Prime Minister Trudeau sign the United States–Mexico–Canada Agreement during the G20 summit in Buenos Aires, Argentina, on 30 November 2018

Worlds regions by total wealth (in trillions USD), 2018

2006 map of the North American Class I railroad network

Baseball is traditionally known as America's national pastime, but is also played in Canada, and many Latin American countries as well.

Simplified map of subsistence methods in the Americas at 1000 BCE
hunter-gatherers
simple farming societies
complex farming societies (tribal chiefdoms or civilizations)

It is bordered to the north by the Arctic Ocean, to the east by the Atlantic Ocean, to the southeast by South America and the Caribbean Sea, and to the west and south by the Pacific Ocean.

Northwest Passage