A report on Scholasticism, Middle Ages, Early Middle Ages and Aristotle

14th-century image of a university lecture

The Cross of Mathilde, a crux gemmata made for Mathilde, Abbess of Essen (973–1011), who is shown kneeling before the Virgin and Child in the enamel plaque. The figure of Christ is slightly later. Probably made in Cologne or Essen, the cross demonstrates several medieval techniques: cast figurative sculpture, filigree, enamelling, gem polishing and setting, and the reuse of Classical cameos and engraved gems.

The jewelled cover of the Codex Aureus of St. Emmeram, c. 870, a Carolingian Gospel book.

Roman copy in marble of a Greek bronze bust of Aristotle by Lysippos, c. 330 BC, with modern alabaster mantle

A late Roman sculpture depicting the Tetrarchs, now in Venice, Italy

School of Aristotle in Mieza, Macedonia, Greece

Barbarian kingdoms and tribes after the end of the Western Roman Empire

Die Hunnen im Kampf mit den Alanen, (The Huns in battle with the Alans by Johann Nepomuk Geiger, 1873). The Alans, an Iranian people who lived north and east of the Black Sea, functioned as Europe's first line of defence against the Asiatic Huns. They were dislocated and settled throughout the Roman Empire

Roman copy of 1st or 2nd century from original bronze by Lysippos. Louvre Museum

A coin of the Ostrogothic leader Theoderic the Great, struck in Milan, Italy, c. AD 491–501

A paten from the Treasure of Gourdon, found at Gourdon, Saône-et-Loire, France.

Plato (left) and Aristotle in Raphael's 1509 fresco, The School of Athens. Aristotle holds his Nicomachean Ethics and gestures to the earth, representing his view in immanent realism, whilst Plato gestures to the heavens, indicating his Theory of Forms, and holds his Timaeus.

A mosaic showing Justinian with the bishop of Ravenna (Italy), bodyguards, and courtiers.

Theodora, Justinian's wife, and her retinue

Plato's forms exist as universals, like the ideal form of an apple. For Aristotle, both matter and form belong to the individual thing (hylomorphism).

Reconstruction of an early medieval peasant village in Bavaria

Aristotle argued that a capability like playing the flute could be acquired – the potential made actual – by learning.

An 11th-century illustration of Gregory the Great dictating to a secretary

Christ crowning Constantine VII
ivory plaque, ca. 945

The four classical elements (fire, air, water, earth) of Empedocles and Aristotle illustrated with a burning log. The log releases all four elements as it is destroyed.

Map showing growth of Frankish power from 481 to 814

Aristotle argued by analogy with woodwork that a thing takes its form from four causes: in the case of a table, the wood used (material cause), its design (formal cause), the tools and techniques used (efficient cause), and its decorative or practical purpose (final cause).

Charlemagne's palace chapel at Aachen, completed in 805

The Sutton Hoo helmet, an Anglo-Saxon helmet from the early 7th century

Aristotle noted that the ground level of the Aeolian islands changed before a volcanic eruption.

10th-century Ottonian ivory plaque depicting Christ receiving a church from Otto I

The Lombard possessions in Italy: The Lombard Kingdom (Neustria, Austria and Tuscia) and the Lombard Duchies of Spoleto and Benevento

Among many pioneering zoological observations, Aristotle described the reproductive hectocotyl arm of the octopus (bottom left).

A page from the Book of Kells, an illuminated manuscript created in the British Isles in the late 8th or early 9th century

The Gokstad ship, a 9th-century Viking longship, excavated in 1882. Viking Ship Museum, Oslo, Norway

Aristotle inferred growth laws from his observations on animals, including that brood size decreases with body mass, whereas gestation period increases. He was correct in these predictions, at least for mammals: data are shown for mouse and elephant.

Medieval French manuscript illustration of the three classes of medieval society: those who prayed (the clergy) those who fought (the knights), and those who worked (the peasantry). The relationship between these classes was governed by feudalism and manorialism. (Li Livres dou Sante, 13th century)

Ceramic icon of St Theodore from around 900, found in Preslav, Bulgarian capital from 893 to 972

Aristotle recorded that the embryo of a dogfish was attached by a cord to a kind of placenta (the yolk sac), like a higher animal; this formed an exception to the linear scale from highest to lowest.

13th-century illustration of a Jew (in pointed Jewish hat) and the Christian Petrus Alphonsi debating

St. Michael's Church, Hildesheim, 1010s. Ottonian architecture draws its inspiration from Carolingian and Byzantine architecture.

Aristotle proposed a three-part structure for souls of plants, animals, and humans, making humans unique in having all three types of soul.

Europe and the Mediterranean Sea in 1190

Senses, perception, memory, dreams, action in Aristotle's psychology. Impressions are stored in the sensorium (the heart), linked by his laws of association (similarity, contrast, and contiguity).

The Bayeux Tapestry (detail) showing William the Conqueror (centre), his half-brothers Robert, Count of Mortain (right) and Odo, Bishop of Bayeux in the Duchy of Normandy (left)

Aristotle's classifications of political constitutions

Krak des Chevaliers was built during the Crusades for the Knights Hospitallers.

The Blind Oedipus Commending his Children to the Gods (1784) by Bénigne Gagneraux. In his Poetics, Aristotle uses the tragedy Oedipus Tyrannus by Sophocles as an example of how the perfect tragedy should be structured, with a generally good protagonist who starts the play prosperous, but loses everything through some hamartia (fault).

A medieval scholar making precise measurements in a 14th-century manuscript illustration

Frontispiece to a 1644 version of Theophrastus's Historia Plantarum, originally written around 300 BC

Portrait of Cardinal Hugh of Saint-Cher by Tommaso da Modena, 1352, the first known depiction of spectacles

The Romanesque Church of Maria Laach, Germany

Woodcut of Aristotle ridden by Phyllis by Hans Baldung, 1515

The Gothic interior of Laon Cathedral, France

William Harvey's De Motu Cordis, 1628, showed that the blood circulated, contrary to classical era thinking.

Francis of Assisi, depicted by Bonaventura Berlinghieri in 1235, founded the Franciscan Order.

"That most enduring of romantic images, Aristotle tutoring the future conqueror Alexander". Illustration by, 1866

First page of a 1566 edition of the Nicomachean Ethics in Greek and Latin

Execution of some of the ringleaders of the jacquerie, from a 14th-century manuscript of the Chroniques de France ou de St Denis

Nuremberg Chronicle anachronistically shows Aristotle in a medieval scholar's clothing. Ink and watercolour on paper, 1493

Aristotle by Justus van Gent. Oil on panel, c. 1476

Phyllis and Aristotle by Lucas Cranach the Elder. Oil on panel, 1530

Guy of Boulogne crowning Pope Gregory XI in a 15th-century miniature from Froissart's Chroniques

Aristotle by Paolo Veronese, Biblioteka Marciana. Oil on canvas, 1560s

Clerics studying astronomy and geometry, French, early 15th century

Aristotle and Campaspe,{{efn-ua | Compare the medieval tale of Phyllis and Alexander above.}} Alessandro Turchi (attrib.) Oil on canvas, 1713

Agricultural calendar, c. 1470, from a manuscript of Pietro de Crescenzi

Aristotle by Jusepe de Ribera. Oil on canvas, 1637

February scene from the 15th-century illuminated manuscript Très Riches Heures du Duc de Berry

Aristotle with a Bust of Homer by Rembrandt. Oil on canvas, 1653

Medieval illustration of the spherical Earth in a 14th-century copy of L'Image du monde

Aristotle by Johann Jakob Dorner the Elder. Oil on canvas, by 1813

The early Muslim conquests
Expansion under Muhammad, 622–632
Expansion during the Rashidun Caliphate, 632–661
Expansion during the Umayyad Caliphate, 661–750

Aristotle by Francesco Hayez. Oil on canvas, 1811

Roman copy of 117-138 AD of Greek original. Palermo Regional Archeology Museum

Relief of Aristotle and Plato by Luca della Robbia, Florence Cathedral, 1437–1439

Stone statue in niche, Gladstone's Library, Hawarden, Wales, 1899

Bronze statue, University of Freiburg, Germany, 1915

Scholasticism was a medieval school of philosophy that employed a critical organic method of philosophical analysis predicated upon the Aristotelian 10 Categories.

- Scholasticism

They marked the start of the Middle Ages of European history.

- Early Middle Ages

The medieval period is itself subdivided into the Early, High, and Late Middle Ages.

- Middle Ages

Scholasticism was initially a program conducted by medieval Christian thinkers attempting to harmonize the various authorities of their own tradition, and to reconcile Christian theology with classical and late antiquity philosophy, especially that of Aristotle but also of Neoplatonism.

- Scholasticism

The influence of physical science extended from Late Antiquity and the Early Middle Ages into the Renaissance, and were not replaced systematically until the Enlightenment and theories such as classical mechanics were developed.

- Aristotle

He also influenced Judeo-Islamic philosophies (800–1400) during the Middle Ages, as well as Christian theology, especially the Neoplatonism of the Early Church and the scholastic tradition of the Catholic Church.

- Aristotle

The first significant renewal of learning in the West came with the Carolingian Renaissance of the Early Middle Ages.

- Scholasticism

In the West, intellectual life was marked by scholasticism, a philosophy that emphasised joining faith to reason, and by the founding of universities.

- Middle Ages

The teaching of dialectic (a discipline that corresponds to today's logic) was responsible for the increase in the interest in speculative inquiry; from this interest would follow the rise of the Scholastic tradition of Christian philosophy.

- Early Middle Ages

Higher education in this period focused on rhetoric, although Aristotle's logic was covered in simple outline.

- Early Middle Ages

Philosophical discourse was stimulated by the rediscovery of Aristotle and his emphasis on empiricism and rationalism.

- Middle Ages

A report on Scholasticism, Middle Ages, Early Middle Ages and Aristotle

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