A report on Arousal

Structures of the brainstem, the origin of the arousal system, viewed along the sagittal plane

Physiological and psychological state of being awoken or of sense organs stimulated to a point of perception.

- Arousal
Structures of the brainstem, the origin of the arousal system, viewed along the sagittal plane

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Emotion

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Emotions are mental states brought on by neurophysiological changes, variously associated with thoughts, feelings, behavioural responses, and a degree of pleasure or displeasure.

Emotions are mental states brought on by neurophysiological changes, variously associated with thoughts, feelings, behavioural responses, and a degree of pleasure or displeasure.

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Examples of basic emotions
The emotion wheel.
Two dimensions of emotions. Made accessible for practical use.
Two dimensions of emotion
Illustration from Charles Darwin's The Expression of the Emotions in Man and Animals (1872)
Simplified graph of James-Lange Theory of Emotion
Timeline of some of the most prominent brain models of emotion in affective neuroscience.

On the one hand, the physiology of emotion is closely linked to arousal of the nervous system.

Coronal section of the pons, at its upper part. (Formatio reticularis labeled at left.)

Reticular formation

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Set of interconnected nuclei that are located throughout the brainstem.

Set of interconnected nuclei that are located throughout the brainstem.

Coronal section of the pons, at its upper part. (Formatio reticularis labeled at left.)
A cross section of the lower part of the pons showing the pontine reticular formation labeled as #9
Ascending reticular activating system. Reticular formation labeled near center.
Spinal cord tracts - reticulospinal tract labeled in red, near-center at left in figure

Neurons of the reticular formation, particularly those of the ascending reticular activating system, play a crucial role in maintaining behavioral arousal and consciousness.

Skeletal formula of noradrenaline

Norepinephrine

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Organic chemical in the catecholamine family that functions in the brain and body as both a hormone and neurotransmitter.

Organic chemical in the catecholamine family that functions in the brain and body as both a hormone and neurotransmitter.

Skeletal formula of noradrenaline
Norepinephrine degradation. Metabolizing enzymes are shown in boxes.
Norepinephrine (labeled "noradrénaline" in this drawing) processing in a synapse. After release norepinephrine can either be taken up again by the presynaptic terminal, or broken down by enzymes.
Schema of the sympathetic nervous system, showing the sympathetic ganglia and the parts of the body to which they connect.
Brain areas containing noradrenergic neurons.
Chemical structure of octopamine, which serves as the homologue of norepinephrine in many invertebrate species

The effects are manifested in alertness, arousal, and readiness for action.

James–Lange theory

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Hypothesis on the origin and nature of emotions and is one of the earliest theories of emotion within modern psychology.

Hypothesis on the origin and nature of emotions and is one of the earliest theories of emotion within modern psychology.

The basic premise of the theory is that physiological arousal instigates the experience of emotion.

Rhomboid fossa. (Locus coeruleus not labeled, but is very near [just lateral to] the colliculus facialis, which is labeled at center left.)

Locus coeruleus

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Nucleus in the pons of the brainstem involved with physiological responses to stress and panic.

Nucleus in the pons of the brainstem involved with physiological responses to stress and panic.

Rhomboid fossa. (Locus coeruleus not labeled, but is very near [just lateral to] the colliculus facialis, which is labeled at center left.)
Locus coeruleus and its influence pathways

The norepinephrine from the LC has an excitatory effect on most of the brain, mediating arousal and priming the brain's neurons to be activated by stimuli.

Skeletal formula of dopamine

Dopamine

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Neuromodulatory molecule that plays several important roles in cells.

Neuromodulatory molecule that plays several important roles in cells.

Skeletal formula of dopamine
Dopamine processing in a synapse. After release dopamine can either be taken up again by the presynaptic terminal, or broken down by enzymes.
TH: tyrosine hydroxylase
DOPA: L-DOPA
DAT: dopamine transporter
DDC: DOPA decarboxylase
VMAT: vesicular monoamine transporter 2
MAO: Monoamine oxidase
COMT: Catechol-O-methyl transferase
HVA: Homovanillic acid
Major dopamine pathways. As part of the reward pathway, dopamine is manufactured in nerve cell bodies located within the ventral tegmental area (VTA) and is released in the nucleus accumbens and the prefrontal cortex. The motor functions of dopamine are linked to a separate pathway, with cell bodies in the substantia nigra that manufacture and release dopamine into the dorsal striatum.
Main circuits of the basal ganglia. The dopaminergic pathway from the substantia nigra pars compacta to the striatum is shown in light blue.
Illustration of dopaminergic reward structures
Dopamine HCl preparation, single dose vial for intravenous administration
Cocaine increases dopamine levels by blocking dopamine transporters (DAT), which transport dopamine back into a synaptic terminal after it has been emitted.
Methamphetamine hydrochloride also known as crystal meth
Dopamine can be found in the peel and fruit pulp of bananas.

Inside the brain, dopamine plays important roles in executive functions, motor control, motivation, arousal, reinforcement, and reward, as well as lower-level functions including lactation, sexual gratification, and nausea.

Colored intaglio prints by Charles Le Brun and J. Pass depicting the facial expressions of sixteen emotions

Emotion classification

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Contested issue in emotion research and in affective science.

Contested issue in emotion research and in affective science.

Colored intaglio prints by Charles Le Brun and J. Pass depicting the facial expressions of sixteen emotions

Most dimensional models incorporate valence and arousal or intensity dimensions.

Reversal Theory Motivational States With Values and Contribution

Reversal theory

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Structural, phenomenological theory of personality, motivation, and emotion in the field of psychology.

Structural, phenomenological theory of personality, motivation, and emotion in the field of psychology.

Reversal Theory Motivational States With Values and Contribution
Homeostatic arousal
Reversal Theory Butterfly Curves

All high arousal emotions will be experienced pleasantly in the form of excitement when the individual is in the paratelic state – even the most otherwise unpleasant emotions.

Human brain and skull

Human brain

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Central organ of the human nervous system, and with the spinal cord makes up the central nervous system.

Central organ of the human nervous system, and with the spinal cord makes up the central nervous system.

Human brain and skull
Human brain (sagittal section)
MRI scan of a human individual's brain
Major gyri and sulci on the lateral surface of the cortex
Lobes of the brain
Cortical folds and white matter in horizontal bisection of head
Human brain viewed from below, showing cerebellum and brainstem
Cerebrospinal fluid circulates in spaces around and within the brain
Two circulations joining at the circle of Willis (inferior view).
Diagram showing features of cerebral outer membranes and supply of blood vessels
Neurulation and neural crest cells
Primary and secondary vesicle stages of development in the early embryo to the fifth week
Brain of a human embryo in the sixth week of development
Motor and sensory regions of the brain
Cortical areas
Routing of neural signals from the two eyes to the brain
Broca's area and Wernicke's area are linked by the arcuate fasciculus.
PET image of the human brain showing energy consumption
CT scan of a cerebral hemorrhage, showing an intraparenchymal bleed (bottom arrow) with surrounding edema (top arrow)
The skull of Phineas Gage, with the path of the iron rod that passed through it without killing him, but altering his cognition. The case helped to convince people that mental functions were localized in the brain.
Phrenology summarized in an 1883 chart
Hieroglyph for the word "brain" (c.1700 BC)
Drawing of the base of the brain, from Andreas Vesalius's 1543 work De humani corporis fabrica
One of Leonardo da Vinci's sketches of the human skull
Drawing by Camillo Golgi of vertical section of rabbit hippocampus, from his "Sulla fina anatomia degli organi centrali del sistema nervoso", 1885
Drawing of cells in chick cerebellum by Santiago Ramón y Cajal, from "Estructura de los centros nerviosos de las aves", Madrid, 1905

The lateral hypothalamus contains orexinergic neurons that control appetite and arousal through their projections to the ascending reticular activating system.

Original data from which the Yerkes–Dodson law was derived

Yerkes–Dodson law

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Empirical relationship between pressure and performance, originally developed by psychologists Robert M. Yerkes and John Dillingham Dodson in 1908.

Empirical relationship between pressure and performance, originally developed by psychologists Robert M. Yerkes and John Dillingham Dodson in 1908.

Original data from which the Yerkes–Dodson law was derived
Original Yerkes–Dodson law
Hebbian version of the Yerkes–Dodson law (this version leaves out that hyperarousal does not adversely impact simple tasks). This version is the most common version and often incorrectly cited in textbooks.

The law dictates that performance increases with physiological or mental arousal, but only up to a point.