A report on Atomic nucleus

A model of the atomic nucleus showing it as a compact bundle of the two types of nucleons: protons (red) and neutrons (blue). In this diagram, protons and neutrons look like little balls stuck together, but an actual nucleus (as understood by modern nuclear physics) cannot be explained like this, but only by using quantum mechanics. In a nucleus that occupies a certain energy level (for example, the ground state), each nucleon can be said to occupy a range of locations.
A figurative depiction of the helium-4 atom with the electron cloud in shades of gray. In the nucleus, the two protons and two neutrons are depicted in red and blue. This depiction shows the particles as separate, whereas in an actual helium atom, the protons are superimposed in space and most likely found at the very center of the nucleus, and the same is true of the two neutrons. Thus, all four particles are most likely found in exactly the same space, at the central point. Classical images of separate particles fail to model known charge distributions in very small nuclei. A more accurate image is that the spatial distribution of nucleons in a helium nucleus is much closer to the helium electron cloud shown here, although on a far smaller scale, than to the fanciful nucleus image. Both the helium atom and its nucleus are spherically symmetric.

Small, dense region consisting of protons and neutrons at the center of an atom, discovered in 1911 by Ernest Rutherford based on the 1909 Geiger–Marsden gold foil experiment.

- Atomic nucleus
A model of the atomic nucleus showing it as a compact bundle of the two types of nucleons: protons (red) and neutrons (blue). In this diagram, protons and neutrons look like little balls stuck together, but an actual nucleus (as understood by modern nuclear physics) cannot be explained like this, but only by using quantum mechanics. In a nucleus that occupies a certain energy level (for example, the ground state), each nucleon can be said to occupy a range of locations.

54 related topics with Alpha

Overall
The quark content of a proton. The color assignment of individual quarks is arbitrary, but all three colors must be present. Forces between quarks are mediated by gluons.

Proton

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Stable subatomic particle, symbol, H+, or 1H+ with a positive electric charge of +1e elementary charge.

Stable subatomic particle, symbol, H+, or 1H+ with a positive electric charge of +1e elementary charge.

The quark content of a proton. The color assignment of individual quarks is arbitrary, but all three colors must be present. Forces between quarks are mediated by gluons.
Ernest Rutherford at the first Solvay Conference, 1911
Proton detected in an isopropanol cloud chamber
Protium, the most common isotope of hydrogen, consists of one proton and one electron (it has no neutrons). The term "hydrogen ion" implies that that H-atom has lost its one electron, causing only a proton to remain. Thus, in chemistry, the terms "proton" and "hydrogen ion" (for the protium isotope) are used synonymously

One or more protons are present in the nucleus of every atom.

The quark content of the neutron. The color assignment of individual quarks is arbitrary, but all three colors must be present. Forces between quarks are mediated by gluons.

Neutron

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Subatomic particle, symbol or, which has a neutral charge, and a mass slightly greater than that of a proton.

Subatomic particle, symbol or, which has a neutral charge, and a mass slightly greater than that of a proton.

The quark content of the neutron. The color assignment of individual quarks is arbitrary, but all three colors must be present. Forces between quarks are mediated by gluons.
Nuclear fission caused by absorption of a neutron by uranium-235. The heavy nuclide fragments into lighter components and additional neutrons.
Models depicting the nucleus and electron energy levels in hydrogen, helium, lithium, and neon atoms. In reality, the diameter of the nucleus is about 100,000 times smaller than the diameter of the atom.
A schematic of the nucleus of an atom indicating radiation, the emission of a fast electron from the nucleus (the accompanying antineutrino is omitted). In the Rutherford model for the nucleus, red spheres were protons with positive charge and blue spheres were protons tightly bound to an electron with no net charge. The inset shows beta decay of a free neutron as it is understood today; an electron and antineutrino are created in this process.
The Feynman diagram for beta decay of a neutron into a proton, electron, and electron antineutrino via an intermediate heavy W boson
The leading-order Feynman diagram for decay of a proton into a neutron, positron, and electron neutrino via an intermediate boson.
Institut Laue–Langevin (ILL) in Grenoble, France – a major neutron research facility.
Cold neutron source providing neutrons at about the temperature of liquid hydrogen
The fusion reaction rate increases rapidly with temperature until it maximizes and then gradually drops off. The D–T rate peaks at a lower temperature (about 70 keV, or 800 million kelvins) and at a higher value than other reactions commonly considered for fusion energy.
Transmutation flow in light water reactor, which is a thermal-spectrum reactor

Protons and neutrons constitute the nuclei of atoms.

Atoms and molecules as depicted in John Dalton's A New System of Chemical Philosophy vol. 1 (1808)

Atom

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Smallest unit of ordinary matter that forms a chemical element.

Smallest unit of ordinary matter that forms a chemical element.

Atoms and molecules as depicted in John Dalton's A New System of Chemical Philosophy vol. 1 (1808)
The Geiger–Marsden experiment: Left: Expected results: alpha particles passing through the plum pudding model of the atom with negligible deflection. Right: Observed results: a small portion of the particles were deflected by the concentrated positive charge of the nucleus.
The Bohr model of the atom, with an electron making instantaneous "quantum leaps" from one orbit to another with gain or loss of energy. This model of electrons in orbits is obsolete.
The binding energy needed for a nucleon to escape the nucleus, for various isotopes
A potential well, showing, according to classical mechanics, the minimum energy V(x) needed to reach each position x. Classically, a particle with energy E is constrained to a range of positions between x1 and x2.
3D views of some hydrogen-like atomic orbitals showing probability density and phase (g orbitals and higher are not shown)
This diagram shows the half-life (T½) of various isotopes with Z protons and N neutrons.
These electron's energy levels (not to scale) are sufficient for ground states of atoms up to cadmium (5s2 4d10) inclusively. Do not forget that even the top of the diagram is lower than an unbound electron state.
An example of absorption lines in a spectrum
Graphic illustrating the formation of a Bose–Einstein condensate
Scanning tunneling microscope image showing the individual atoms making up this gold (100) surface. The surface atoms deviate from the bulk crystal structure and arrange in columns several atoms wide with pits between them (See surface reconstruction).
Periodic table showing the origin of each element. Elements from carbon up to sulfur may be made in small stars by the alpha process. Elements beyond iron are made in large stars with slow neutron capture (s-process). Elements heavier than iron may be made in neutron star mergers or supernovae after the r-process.

Every atom is composed of a nucleus and one or more electrons bound to the nucleus.

Hydrogen atomic orbitals at different energy levels. The more opaque areas are where one is most likely to find an electron at any given time.

Electron

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Subatomic particle whose electric charge is negative one elementary charge.

Subatomic particle whose electric charge is negative one elementary charge.

Hydrogen atomic orbitals at different energy levels. The more opaque areas are where one is most likely to find an electron at any given time.
A beam of electrons deflected in a circle by a magnetic field
J. J. Thomson
Robert Millikan
The Bohr model of the atom, showing states of an electron with energy quantized by the number n. An electron dropping to a lower orbit emits a photon equal to the energy difference between the orbits.
In quantum mechanics, the behavior of an electron in an atom is described by an orbital, which is a probability distribution rather than an orbit. In the figure, the shading indicates the relative probability to "find" the electron, having the energy corresponding to the given quantum numbers, at that point.
Standard Model of elementary particles. The electron (symbol e) is on the left.
Example of an antisymmetric wave function for a quantum state of two identical fermions in a 1-dimensional box. If the particles swap position, the wave function inverts its sign.
A schematic depiction of virtual electron–positron pairs appearing at random near an electron (at lower left)
A particle with charge q (at left) is moving with velocity v through a magnetic field B that is oriented toward the viewer. For an electron, q is negative so it follows a curved trajectory toward the top.
Here, Bremsstrahlung is produced by an electron e deflected by the electric field of an atomic nucleus. The energy change E2 − E1 determines the frequency f of the emitted photon.
Probability densities for the first few hydrogen atom orbitals, seen in cross-section. The energy level of a bound electron determines the orbital it occupies, and the color reflects the probability of finding the electron at a given position.
A lightning discharge consists primarily of a flow of electrons. The electric potential needed for lightning can be generated by a triboelectric effect.
Lorentz factor as a function of velocity. It starts at value 1 and goes to infinity as v approaches c.
Pair production of an electron and positron, caused by the close approach of a photon with an atomic nucleus. The lightning symbol represents an exchange of a virtual photon, thus an electric force acts. The angle between the particles is very small.
An extended air shower generated by an energetic cosmic ray striking the Earth's atmosphere
Aurorae are mostly caused by energetic electrons precipitating into the atmosphere.
During a NASA wind tunnel test, a model of the Space Shuttle is targeted by a beam of electrons, simulating the effect of ionizing gases during re-entry.

The Coulomb force interaction between the positive protons within atomic nuclei and the negative electrons without, allows the composition of the two known as atoms.

Henri Becquerel

Nuclear physics

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Henri Becquerel
Since the 1920s, cloud chambers played an important role of particle detectors and eventually lead to the discovery of positron, muon and kaon.
Henri Becquerel

Nuclear physics is the field of physics that studies atomic nuclei and their constituents and interactions, in addition to the study of other forms of nuclear matter.

A proton is composed of two up quarks, one down quark, and the gluons that mediate the forces "binding" them together. The color assignment of individual quarks is arbitrary, but all three colors must be present; red, blue and green are used as an analogy to the primary colors that together produce a white color.

Quark

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Type of elementary particle and a fundamental constituent of matter.

Type of elementary particle and a fundamental constituent of matter.

A proton is composed of two up quarks, one down quark, and the gluons that mediate the forces "binding" them together. The color assignment of individual quarks is arbitrary, but all three colors must be present; red, blue and green are used as an analogy to the primary colors that together produce a white color.
Six of the particles in the Standard Model are quarks (shown in purple). Each of the first three columns forms a generation of matter.
Murray Gell-Mann (2007)
George Zweig (2015)
Photograph of the event that led to the discovery of the baryon, at the Brookhaven National Laboratory in 1974
Feynman diagram of beta decay with time flowing upwards. The CKM matrix (discussed below) encodes the probability of this and other quark decays.
The strengths of the weak interactions between the six quarks. The "intensities" of the lines are determined by the elements of the CKM matrix.
All types of hadrons have zero total color charge.
The pattern of strong charges for the three colors of quark, three antiquarks, and eight gluons (with two of zero charge overlapping).
Current quark masses for all six flavors in comparison, as balls of proportional volumes. Proton (gray) and electron (red) are shown in bottom left corner for scale.
A qualitative rendering of the phase diagram of quark matter. The precise details of the diagram are the subject of ongoing research.

Quarks combine to form composite particles called hadrons, the most stable of which are protons and neutrons, the components of atomic nuclei.

A physicist observes alpha particles from the decay of a polonium source in a cloud chamber

Alpha particle

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A physicist observes alpha particles from the decay of a polonium source in a cloud chamber
Alpha radiation detected in an isopropanol cloud chamber (after injection of an artificial source radon-220).
Example selection of radioactive nuclides with main emitted alpha particle energies plotted against their atomic number. Note that each nuclide has a distinct alpha spectrum.
Alpha radiation consists of helium-4 nucleus and is readily stopped by a sheet of paper. Beta radiation, consisting of electrons, is halted by an aluminium plate. Gamma radiation is eventually absorbed as it penetrates a dense material. Lead is good at absorbing gamma radiation, due to its density.
An alpha particle is deflected by a magnetic field
Dispersing of alpha particles on a thin metal sheet
Energy-loss (Bragg curve) in air for typical alpha particle emitted through radioactive decay.
The trace of a single alpha particle obtained by nuclear physicist Wolfhart Willimczik with his spark chamber specially made for alpha particles.

Alpha particles, also called alpha rays or alpha radiation, consist of two protons and two neutrons bound together into a particle identical to a helium-4 nucleus.

Ernest Rutherford

Ernest Rutherford

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New Zealand physicist who came to be known as the father of nuclear physics.

New Zealand physicist who came to be known as the father of nuclear physics.

Ernest Rutherford
Rutherford in 1892, aged 21
Lord Rutherford's grave in Westminster Abbey
Ernest Rutherford at McGill University in 1905
Top: Expected results: alpha particles passing through the plum pudding model of the atom undisturbed. Bottom: Observed results: a small portion of the particles were deflected, indicating a small, concentrated charge. Diagram is not to scale; in reality the nucleus is vastly smaller than the electron shell.
A plaque commemorating Rutherford's presence at the University of Manchester
nitrogen plasma
A statue of a young Ernest Rutherford at his memorial in Brightwater, New Zealand.
A Russian postage depicting Scattering diagram
Radioaktive Substanzen und ihre Strahlungen, 1913

In 1911, although he could not prove that it was positive or negative, he theorized that atoms have their charge concentrated in a very small nucleus, and thereby pioneered the Rutherford model of the atom, through his discovery and interpretation of Rutherford scattering by the gold foil experiment of Hans Geiger and Ernest Marsden.

Force (in units of 10,000 N) between two nucleons as a function of distance as computed from the Reid potential (1968). The spins of the neutron and proton are aligned, and they are in the S angular momentum state. The attractive (negative) force has a maximum at a distance of about 1 fm with a force of about 25,000 N. Particles much closer than a distance of 0.8 fm experience a large repulsive (positive) force. Particles separated by a distance greater than 1 fm are still attracted (Yukawa potential), but the force falls as an exponential function of distance.

Nuclear force

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Force that acts between the protons and neutrons of atoms.

Force that acts between the protons and neutrons of atoms.

Force (in units of 10,000 N) between two nucleons as a function of distance as computed from the Reid potential (1968). The spins of the neutron and proton are aligned, and they are in the S angular momentum state. The attractive (negative) force has a maximum at a distance of about 1 fm with a force of about 25,000 N. Particles much closer than a distance of 0.8 fm experience a large repulsive (positive) force. Particles separated by a distance greater than 1 fm are still attracted (Yukawa potential), but the force falls as an exponential function of distance.
Corresponding potential energy (in units of MeV) of two nucleons as a function of distance as computed from the Reid potential. The potential well is a minimum at a distance of about 0.8 fm. With this potential nucleons can become bound with a negative "binding energy."
Comparison between the Nuclear Force and the Coulomb Force. a - residual strong force (nuclear force), rapidly decreases to insignificance at distances beyond about 2.5 fm, b - at distances less than ~ 0.7 fm between nucleons centers the nuclear force becomes repulsive, c - coulomb repulsion force between two protons (over 3 fm force becomes the main), d - equilibrium position for proton - proton, r - radius of a nucleon (a cloud composed of three quarks). Note: 1 fm = 1E-15 m.
A simplified Feynman diagram of a strong proton–neutron interaction mediated by a virtual neutral pion. Time proceeds from left to right.
An animation of the interaction. The colored double circles are gluons. Anticolors are shown as per [[:File:Quark Anticolours.png|this diagram]] ([[:File: Nulcear Force anim.gif|larger version]]).
The same diagram as that above with the individual quark constituents shown, to illustrate how the fundamental strong interaction gives rise to the nuclear force. Straight lines are quarks, while multi-colored loops are gluons (the carriers of the fundamental force). Other gluons, which bind together the proton, neutron, and pion "in flight", are not shown.

The nuclear force binds nucleons into atomic nuclei.

An atomic nucleus is shown here as a compact bundle of the two types of nucleons, protons (red) and neutrons (blue). In this picture, the protons and neutrons are shown as distinct, which is the conventional view in chemistry, for example. But in an actual nucleus, as understood by modern nuclear physics, the nucleons are partially delocalized and organize themselves according to the laws of quantum chromodynamics.

Nucleon

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An atomic nucleus is shown here as a compact bundle of the two types of nucleons, protons (red) and neutrons (blue). In this picture, the protons and neutrons are shown as distinct, which is the conventional view in chemistry, for example. But in an actual nucleus, as understood by modern nuclear physics, the nucleons are partially delocalized and organize themselves according to the laws of quantum chromodynamics.

In physics and chemistry, a nucleon is either a proton or a neutron, considered in its role as a component of an atomic nucleus.