A report on Carbohydrate

Lactose is a disaccharide found in animal milk. It consists of a molecule of D-galactose and a molecule of D-glucose bonded by beta-1-4 glycosidic linkage.

D-glucose is an aldohexose with the formula (C·H2O)6. The red atoms highlight the aldehyde group and the blue atoms highlight the asymmetric center furthest from the aldehyde; because this -OH is on the right of the Fischer projection, this is a D sugar.

Glucose can exist in both a straight-chain and ring form.

Sucrose, also known as table sugar, is a common disaccharide. It is composed of two monosaccharides: D-glucose (left) and D-fructose (right).

Grain products: rich sources of carbohydrates

Biomolecule consisting of carbon , hydrogen (H) and oxygen (O) atoms, usually with a hydrogen–oxygen atom ratio of 2:1 (as in water) and thus with the empirical formula Cm(H2O)n (where m may or may not be different from n).

- Carbohydrate

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Glucose

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Simple sugar with the molecular formula C6H12O6.

Widely proposed arrow-pushing mechanism for acid-catalyzed dynamic equilibrium between the α- and β- anomers of D-glucopyranose

Glucose metabolism and various forms of it in the process.Glucose-containing compounds and isomeric forms are digested and taken up by the body in the intestines, including starch, glycogen, disaccharides and monosaccharides.Glucose is stored in mainly the liver and muscles as glycogen. It is distributed and used in tissues as free glucose.

Diagram showing the possible intermediates in glucose degradation; Metabolic pathways orange: glycolysis, green: Entner-Doudoroff pathway, phosphorylating, yellow: Entner-Doudoroff pathway, non-phosphorylating

Relative sweetness of various sugars in comparison with sucrose

Glucose is the most abundant monosaccharide, a subcategory of carbohydrates.

Metabolism

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Set of life-sustaining chemical reactions in organisms.

Structure of adenosine triphosphate (ATP), a central intermediate in energy metabolism

This is a diagram depicting a large set of human metabolic pathways.

Structure of the coenzyme acetyl-CoA.The transferable acetyl group is bonded to the sulfur atom at the extreme left.

The structure of iron-containing hemoglobin. The protein subunits are in red and blue, and the iron-containing heme groups in green. From.

A simplified outline of the catabolism of proteins, carbohydrates and fats

Mechanism of ATP synthase. ATP is shown in red, ADP and phosphate in pink and the rotating stalk subunit in black.

Plant cells (bounded by purple walls) filled with chloroplasts (green), which are the site of photosynthesis

Simplified version of the steroid synthesis pathway with the intermediates isopentenyl pyrophosphate (IPP), dimethylallyl pyrophosphate (DMAPP), geranyl pyrophosphate (GPP) and squalene shown. Some intermediates are omitted for clarity.

Effect of insulin on glucose uptake and metabolism. Insulin binds to its receptor (1), which in turn starts many protein activation cascades (2). These include: translocation of Glut-4 transporter to the plasma membrane and influx of glucose (3), glycogen synthesis (4), glycolysis (5) and fatty acid synthesis (6).

Evolutionary tree showing the common ancestry of organisms from all three domains of life. Bacteria are colored blue, eukaryotes red, and archaea green. Relative positions of some of the phyla included are shown around the tree.

Metabolic network of the Arabidopsis thaliana citric acid cycle. Enzymes and metabolites are shown as red squares and the interactions between them as black lines.

Aristotle's metabolism as an open flow model

Santorio Santorio in his steelyard balance, from Ars de statica medicina, first published 1614

The three main purposes of metabolism are: the conversion of the energy in food to energy available to run cellular processes; the conversion of food to building blocks for proteins, lipids, nucleic acids, and some carbohydrates; and the elimination of metabolic wastes.

A sugarloaf was a traditional form for sugar from the 17th to 19th centuries. Sugar nips were required to break off pieces.

Sucrose

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Sugar composed of glucose and fructose subunits.

A table sugar factory in England. The tall diffusers are visible to the middle left where the harvest transforms into a sugar syrup. The boiler and furnace are in the center, where table sugar crystals form. An expressway for transport is visible in the lower left.

Harvested sugarcane from Venezuela ready for processing

Sugars; clockwise from top left: Refined, unrefined, brown, unprocessed cane

Like other carbohydrates, it combusts to carbon dioxide and water.

Sugar

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Two elaborate sugar triomfi of goddesses for a dinner given by the Earl of Castlemaine, British Ambassador in Rome, 1687

Close-up image of sugar cane; demand for sugar contributed to creating colonial systems in areas where cultivation of sugar cane was profitable.

Hacienda La Fortuna. A sugar mill complex in Puerto Rico, painted by Francisco Oller in 1885, Brooklyn Museum

German chemists Andreas Sigismund Marggraf and Franz Karl Achard (pictured) both laid the foundation of the modern sugar industry

Sucrose: a disaccharide of glucose (left) and fructose (right), important molecules in the body.

Magnification of grains of refined sucrose, the most common free sugar.

World production of raw sugar, main producers

Brown sugar examples: Muscovado (top), dark brown (left), light brown (right)

A jar of honey with a dipper and a biscuit

alt=raw sugar closeup|Raw crystals of unrefined, unbleached sugar

Sugar is the generic name for sweet-tasting, soluble carbohydrates, many of which are used in food.

Starch

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Starch mill at Ballydugan (Northern Ireland), built in 1792

West Philadelphia Starch works at Philadelphia (Pennsylvania), 1850

potato starch granules in cells of the potato

starch in endosperm in embryonic phase of maize seed

Corn starch, 800x magnified, under polarized light, showing characteristic extinction cross

Rice starch seen on light microscope. Characteristic for the rice starch is that starch granules have an angular outline and some of them are attached to each other and form larger granules

Granules of wheat starch, stained with iodine, photographed through a light microscope

Pacific Laundry and Cooking Starch advert 1904

Kingsford Oswego Starch advertising, 1885

Starch or amylum is a polymeric carbohydrate consisting of numerous glucose units joined by glycosidic bonds.

Gerty Cori and Carl Cori jointly won the Nobel Prize in 1947 for their discovery of the Cori cycle at RPMI.

Biochemistry

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Study of chemical processes within and relating to living organisms.

The main elements that compose the human body shown from most abundant (by mass) to least abundant.

Structures of some common lipids. At the top are cholesterol and oleic acid. The middle structure is a triglyceride composed of oleoyl, stearoyl, and palmitoyl chains attached to a glycerol backbone. At the bottom is the common phospholipid, phosphatidylcholine.

The general structure of an α-amino acid, with the amino group on the left and the carboxyl group on the right.

Generic amino acids (1) in neutral form, (2) as they exist physiologically, and (3) joined together as a dipeptide.

A schematic of hemoglobin. The red and blue ribbons represent the protein globin; the green structures are the heme groups.

Examples of protein structures from the Protein Data Bank

Members of a protein family, as represented by the structures of the isomerase domains

The structure of deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA), the picture shows the monomers being put together.

Structural elements of common nucleic acid constituents. Because they contain at least one phosphate group, the compounds marked nucleoside monophosphate, nucleoside diphosphate and nucleoside triphosphate are all nucleotides (not simply phosphate-lacking nucleosides).

Schematic relationship between biochemistry, genetics, and molecular biology.

Much of biochemistry deals with the structures, bonding, functions, and interactions of biological macromolecules, such as proteins, nucleic acids, carbohydrates, and lipids.

Polysaccharide

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Amylose is a linear polymer of glucose mainly linked with α(1→4) bonds. It can be made of several thousands of glucose units. It is one of the two components of starch, the other being amylopectin.

Some important natural structural polysaccharides

Schematic 2-D cross-sectional view of glycogen. A core protein of glycogenin is surrounded by branches of glucose units. The entire globular granule may contain approximately 30,000 glucose units.<ref>{{cite book | url = https://books.google.com/books?id=SRptlOx7yj4C | page = 12 | title = Exercise physiology: energy, nutrition, and human performance | vauthors = McArdle WD, Katch FI, Katch VL | edition = 6th | publisher = Lippincott Williams & Wilkins | date = 2006 | isbn = 978-0-7817-4990-9 }}</ref>

A view of the atomic structure of a single branched strand of glucose units in a glycogen molecule.

Polysaccharides, or polycarbohydrates, are the most abundant carbohydrates found in food.

Monosaccharide

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Conversion between the furanose, acyclic, and pyranose forms of -glucose

Monosaccharides (from Greek monos: single, sacchar: sugar), also called simple sugars, are the simplest forms of sugar and the most basic units (monomers) from which all carbohydrates are built.

Disaccharide

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Sugar formed when two monosaccharides are joined by glycosidic linkage.

Disaccharides are one of the four chemical groupings of carbohydrates (monosaccharides, disaccharides, oligosaccharides, and polysaccharides).

Hydrolysis

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Any chemical reaction in which a molecule of water breaks one or more chemical bonds.

Mechanism for acid-catalyzed hydrolysis of an amide.

Sucrose. The glycoside bond is represented by the central oxygen atom, which holds the two monosaccharide units together.

When a carbohydrate is broken into its component sugar molecules by hydrolysis (e.g., sucrose being broken down into glucose and fructose), this is recognized as saccharification.