A report on Second Sino-Japanese War, Chiang Kai-shek and Shandong

(clockwise from top left)Imperial Japanese Navy landing force in military gas masks in the Battle of Shanghai

Japanese Type 92 heavy machine gunners during Operation Ichi-Go

Victims of the Nanjing Massacre on the shore of the Qinhuai River

Chinese machine gun nest in the Battle of Wuhan

Japanese aircraft during the bombing of Chongqing

Chinese Expeditionary Force marching in India

Generalissimo Chiang Kai-shek, Allied Commander-in-Chief in the China theatre from 1942 to 1945

A Song-era monument to a legendary native of Shandong, the Yellow Emperor, at his supposed birthplace

Japanese troops entering Shenyang during the Mukden Incident

Sun Yat-sen and Chiang at the 1924 opening ceremonies for the Soviet-funded Whampoa Military Academy

Remains of Ancient Linzi city sewer passing underneath the former city wall

City of Linqing, Shandong, with a view of the Grand Canal. Drawing by William Alexander, draughtsman of the Macartney Embassy to China in 1793.

A baby sits in the remains of a Shanghai train station on 'Bloody Saturday', 1937

Chiang (right) together with Wang Jingwei (left), 1926

Street market in the city, photographed by members of the Fragata Sarmiento's crew in the late 19th century

Generalissimo Chiang Kai-shek announced the Kuomintang policy of resistance against Japan at Lushan on 10 July 1937, three days after the Marco Polo Bridge Incident.

German 1912 map of the Shandong Peninsula showing the Kiautschou Bay concession

Japanese landing near Shanghai, November 1937

Chiang during a visit to an air force base in 1945

Japanese troops in the ruins of Shanghai

Chiang and Soong on the cover of Time magazine, 26 October 1931

Tomb of the 59th generation senior descendant of Confucius, Kong Yanjin. Many generations of the senior-branch direct descendants of Confucius ruled the Qufu area as its feudal rulers.

Soviet embassy in Nanjing is being burned down by arson on 1 January 1938.

Nationalist government of Nanking – nominally ruling over entire China in 1930s

A Chinese POW about to be beheaded by a Japanese officer with a shin gunto

After the breakout of the Second Sino-Japanese War, The Young Companion featured Chiang on its cover.

National Revolutionary Army soldiers during the 1938 Yellow River flood

Chiang with Franklin D. Roosevelt and Winston Churchill in Cairo, Egypt, November 1943

Map showing the extent of Japanese occupation in 1941 (in red)

Chiang and his wife Soong Mei-ling sharing a laugh with U.S. Lieutenant General Joseph W. Stilwell, Burma, April 1942

Theaters (military operational regions) of the Chinese National Revolutionary Army from late 1938 to early 1940

Hall of the Great Perfection of the Temple of Confucius in Qufu

Wang Jingwei and officers of the Collaborationist Chinese Army

Chiang with South Korean President Syngman Rhee in 1949

Chinese soldiers in house-to-house fighting in the Battle of Taierzhuang, March–April 1938

Map of the Chinese Civil War (1946–1950)

National Revolutionary Army soldiers march to the front in 1939.

Chiang with Japanese politician Nobusuke Kishi, in 1957

Eighth Route Army Commander Zhu De with a KMT "Blue Sky, White Sun" emblem cap

Chiang presiding over the 1966 Double Ten celebrations

115th Division of the Eighth Route Army Lieutenant General (NRA rank) Lin Biao in NRA uniform

Chiang with U.S. President Dwight D. Eisenhower in June 1960

War declaration against Japan by the Chongqing Nationalist Government on 9 December 1941

The National Chiang Kai-shek Memorial Hall is a famous monument, landmark, and tourist attraction in Taipei, Taiwan.

Generalissimo Chiang Kai-shek and his wife Madame Chiang with Lieutenant General Joseph Stilwell in 1942, Burma

A United States poster from the United China Relief organization advocating aid to China.

Chinese propaganda poster proclaiming "Long Live the President"

Generalissimo Chiang Kai-shek, Franklin D. Roosevelt, and Winston Churchill met at the Cairo Conference in 1943 during World War II.

Chiang Kai-shek and Winston Churchill heads, with Nationalist China flag and Union Jack

I-16 with Chinese insignia. The I-16 was the main fighter plane used by the Chinese Air Force and Soviet volunteers.

Statue of Chiang Kai-shek in Yangmingshan National Park, Taiwan

Flying Tigers Commander Claire Lee Chennault

A "blood chit" issued to American Volunteer Group pilots requesting all Chinese to offer rescue and protection

Chiang Kai-shek with the Muslim General Ma Fushou

Free Thai, American and Chinese military officers in China during the war

Chiang Kai-shek as Knight of the Royal Order of the Seraphim

The India–China airlift delivered approximately 650,000 tons of materiel to China at a cost of 1,659 men and 594 aircraft.

Mao Fumei (毛福梅, 1882–1939), who died in the Second Sino-Japanese War during a bombardment, is the mother of his son and successor Chiang Ching-kuo

French colonial troops retreating to the Chinese border after the Japanese coup d'état in March 1945

Yao Yecheng (姚冶誠, 1889–1972), who came to Taiwan and died in Taipei

Chen Jieru (陳潔如, "Jennie", 1906–1971), who lived in Shanghai, but moved to Hong Kong later and died there

Soong Mei-ling (宋美齡, 1898–2003), who moved to the United States after Chiang Kai-shek's death, is arguably his most famous wife even though they had no children together

WWII victory parade at Chongqing on 3 September 1945

Japanese troops surrendering to the Chinese

The Chinese return to Liuzhou in July 1945.

China War of Resistance Against Japan Memorial Museum on the site where the Marco Polo Bridge Incident took place

The Taiwan Strait and the island of Taiwan

Casualties of a mass panic during a June 1941 Japanese bombing of Chongqing. More than 5,000 civilians died during the first two days of air raids in 1939.

Japanese war crime against a Chinese POW

Japanese Special Naval Landing Forces with gas masks and rubber gloves during a chemical attack near Chapei in the Battle of Shanghai

Chinese suicide bomber putting on an explosive vest made out of Model 24 hand grenades to use in an attack on Japanese tanks at the Battle of Taierzhuang

Following the Marco Polo Bridge Incident in 1937, he mobilized China for the Second Sino-Japanese War.

- Chiang Kai-shek

Following World War I, Japan acquired the German Empire's sphere of influence in Shandong province, leading to nationwide anti-Japanese protests and mass demonstrations in China.

- Second Sino-Japanese War

Later in the same year, Zhang decided to declare his allegiance to the Nationalist government in Nanjing under Chiang Kai-shek, and consequently, China was nominally reunified under one government.

- Second Sino-Japanese War

He was succeeded by Han Fuju, who was loyal to the warlord Feng Yuxiang but later switched his allegiance to the Nanjing government headed by Chiang Kai-shek.

- Shandong

In 1937 Japan began its invasion of China proper in the Second Sino-Japanese War, which would eventually become part of the Pacific theatre of the Second World War.

- Shandong

The National Revolutionary Army (NRA) formed by the KMT swept through southern and central China until it was checked in Shandong, where confrontations with the Japanese garrison escalated into armed conflict.

- Chiang Kai-shek

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Republic of China (1912–1949)

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Commonly recognised as the official designation of China from 1912 to 1949, when it was a country in East Asia based in Mainland China, prior to the relocation of its central government to Taiwan as a result of the Chinese Civil War.

Land controlled by the Republic of China (1946) shown in dark green; land claimed but uncontrolled shown in light green.

Sun Yat-sen, the founding father of the Republic of China.

Yuan Shikai (left) and Sun Yat-sen (right) with flags representing the early republic

Major Chinese warlord coalitions during the "Nanjing Decade".

China had been at war with Japan since 1931.

Chinese Nationalist Army soldiers during the 1938 Yellow River flood

The Nationalists' retreat to Taipei: after the Nationalists lost Nanjing (Nanking) they next moved to Guangzhou (Canton), then to Chongqing (Chungking), Chengdu (Chengtu) and Xichang (Sichang) before arriving in Taipei.

Nationalist government of Nanking – nominally ruling over entire China during 1930s

Boat traffic and development along Suzhou Creek, Shanghai, 1920

General Chiang Kai-shek, who became the Chairman of the Kuomintang after Sun's death and subsequent power struggle in 1925, began the Northern Expedition in 1926 to overthrow the Beiyang government.

Nation-building efforts yielded to fight the Second Sino-Japanese War in 1937 when a skirmish between the National Revolutionary Army and Imperial Japanese Army culminated in a full-scale invasion by Japan.

After this reunification, China entered a period of relative stability—despite ongoing isolated military conflicts and in the face of Japanese aggression in Shandong and Manchuria, in 1931—a period known as the "Nanjing Decade".

Clockwise from top-left: Chiang inspecting soldiers of the National Revolutionary Army; NRA troops marching north; an NRA artillery unit in combat; civilians showing support for the NRA; peasants volunteering to join the expedition; NRA soldiers preparing to launch an attack.

Northern Expedition

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Military campaign launched by the National Revolutionary Army of the Kuomintang (KMT), also known as the "Chinese Nationalist Party", against the Beiyang government and other regional warlords in 1926.

Generalissimo Chiang Kai-shek, commander-in-chief of the NRA, emerged from the Northern Expedition as the leader of the KMT and China.

Chiang Kai-shek prepares to leave Guangzhou. Those pictured include Mikhail Borodin, on the far left, Vasily Blyukher in military uniform on the right, and Chiang himself in uniform, to the right of Blyukher.

NRA forces enter the British concession at Hankou, October 1926

Members of the National Pacification military government, from left to right: Pan Fu, Gungsangnorbu, Wu Junsheng, Sun Chuanfang, Zhang Zuoxiang, and Zhang Zongchang

Mikhail Borodin making a speech in Wuhan, 1927

Feng Yuxiang meets with Chiang Kai-shek in Xuzhou on 19 June 1927

Shanxi warlord Yan Xishan started to fight the NPA in October 1927, strengthening the KMT military position

Beiyang warlord soldiers retreating by railway

When Zhang Xueliang (right) decided to make peace with the nationalist government, his former subordinates Zhang Zongchang (middle) and Chu Yupu (left) unsuccessfully attempted to overthrow him.

The leaders of the Northern Expedition gather on 6 July 1928 at Sun Yat-sen's mausoleum in the Temple of Azure Clouds, Beijing, to commemorate the completion of their mission.

The expedition was led by Generalissimo Chiang Kai-shek, and was divided into two phases.

The most powerful coalition, led by Zhang Zuolin, head of the Beiyang government and the Fengtian clique, was in control of Manchuria, Shandong and Zhili.

Although Chiang was ultimately victorious in that war which ensured his status as the singular leader of all China, regionalism and warlordism would continue, weakening the country and laying the groundwork for the Second Sino-Japanese War and the Chinese Civil War.

Warlord Era

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Period in the history of the Republic of China when control of the country was divided among former military cliques of the Beiyang Army and other regional factions from 1916 to 1928.

Zhang Zuolin (left) and Wu Peifu (right), two of the most powerful strongmen of the Warlord Era

Control of railroads was of great importance to the warlords.

Zhang Zongchang, one of the most infamous Chinese warlords

Bandits in northwestern China, around 1915

Warlord soldiers train with dao swords sometime in the 1920s. Some warlord armies, especially those in southern China, were badly armed, paid and supplied, and often lacked even basic necessities, such as guns, ammunition, and food.

Zhang Zuolin with two of his sons, both wearing expensive miniature uniforms

Renault FT of the Fengtian clique during Northern Expedition

This military symbol was based on the Five Races Under One Union flag.

Map of the campaigns of the Northern expedition of the Kuomintang

In course of the Central Plains War, several warlords attempted to overthrow Chiang Kai-shek's newly formed Nationalist government; despite the defeat of the anti-Kuomintang forces, warlords continued to remain in power in much of China until the 1940s

The Warlord Era ended in 1928 when the Kuomintang under Chiang Kai-shek officially unified China through the Northern Expedition, marking the beginning of the Nanjing decade.

Several of the warlords continued to maintain their influence through the 1930s and the 1940s, which was problematic for the Nationalist government during both the Second Sino-Japanese War and Chinese Civil War.

Yellow River

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The Yellow River Breaches its Course by Ma Yuan (1160–1225, Song dynasty)

The Yellow River as depicted in a Qing dynasty illustrated map (sections)

Guide County, Qinghai in the Tibetan Plateau, upstream from the Loess Plateau.

The mouth of the Daxia River (coming from bottom right), flowing into the Yellow River's Liujiaxia Reservoir in Linxia Prefecture, Gansu

Expansion of the Yellow River Delta from 1989 to 2009 in five-year intervals.

Pontoon bridge (Luokou Pontoon Bridge ) over the Yellow River in Jinan, Shandong

The paradise fish is well known in the aquarium hobby and it originates from East Asian river basins, including the Yellow River

The Chinese pond turtle (shown) and Chinese softshell turtle are both native to the Yellow River, but also farmed in large numbers

Qikou town along Yellow River in Shanxi Province

The Yellow River or Huang He (Chinese: 黃河, Mandarin: Huáng hé ) is the second-longest river in China, after the Yangtze River, and the sixth-longest river system in the world at the estimated length of 5464 km. Originating in the Bayan Har Mountains in Qinghai province of Western China, it flows through nine provinces, and it empties into the Bohai Sea near the city of Dongying in Shandong province.

On 9 June 1938, during the Second Sino-Japanese War, Nationalist troops under Chiang Kai-shek broke the levees holding back the river near the village of Huayuankou in Henan, causing what has been called by Canadian historian, Diana Lary, a "war-induced natural disaster".