A report on Chloroquine

Medical quinolines
Hemozoin formation in P. falciparum: many antimalarials are strong inhibitors of hemozoin crystal growth.
Resochin tablet package

Medication primarily used to prevent and treat malaria in areas where malaria remains sensitive to its effects.

- Chloroquine

20 related topics with Alpha

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Antimalarial medication

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Antimalarial medications or simply antimalarials are a type of antiparasitic chemical agent, often naturally derived, that can be used to treat or to prevent malaria, in the latter case, most often aiming at two susceptible target groups, young children and pregnant women.

Antimalarial medications or simply antimalarials are a type of antiparasitic chemical agent, often naturally derived, that can be used to treat or to prevent malaria, in the latter case, most often aiming at two susceptible target groups, young children and pregnant women.

As well, despite very positive outcomes from many modern treatments, serious side effects can impact some individuals taking standard doses (e.g., retinopathy with chloroquine, acute haemolytic anaemia with tafenoquine).

Malaria parasite connecting to a red blood cell

Malaria

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Mosquito-borne infectious disease that affects humans and other animals.

Mosquito-borne infectious disease that affects humans and other animals.

Malaria parasite connecting to a red blood cell
Main symptoms of malaria
The life cycle of malaria parasites. Sporozoites are introduced by a mosquito bite. They migrate to the liver, where they multiply into thousands of merozoites. The merozoites infect red blood cells and replicate, infecting more and more red blood cells. Some parasites form gametocytes, which are taken up by a mosquito, continuing the life cycle.
Micrograph of a placenta from a stillbirth due to maternal malaria. H&E stain. Red blood cells are anuclear; blue/black staining in bright red structures (red blood cells) indicate foreign nuclei from the parasites.
Electron micrograph of a Plasmodium falciparum-infected red blood cell (center), illustrating adhesion protein "knobs"
The blood film is the gold standard for malaria diagnosis.
Ring-forms and gametocytes of Plasmodium falciparum in human blood
An Anopheles stephensi mosquito shortly after obtaining blood from a human (the droplet of blood is expelled as a surplus). This mosquito is a vector of malaria, and mosquito control is an effective way of reducing its incidence.
Man spraying kerosene oil in standing water, Panama Canal Zone, 1912
Walls where indoor residual spraying of DDT has been applied. The mosquitoes remain on the wall until they fall down dead on the floor.
A mosquito net in use.
An advertisement for quinine as a malaria treatment from 1927.
Deaths due to malaria per million persons in 2012
Past and current malaria prevalence in 2009
Ancient malaria oocysts preserved in Dominican amber
British doctor Ronald Ross received the Nobel Prize for Physiology or Medicine in 1902 for his work on malaria.
Chinese medical researcher Tu Youyou received the Nobel Prize for Physiology or Medicine in 2015 for her work on the antimalarial drug artemisinin.
Artemisia annua, source of the antimalarial drug artemisinin
U.S. Marines with malaria in a field hospital on Guadalcanal, October 1942
Members of the Malaria Commission of the League of Nations collecting larvae on the Danube delta, 1929
1962 Pakistani postage stamp promoting malaria eradication program
Malaria clinic in Tanzania
Child with malaria in Ethiopia
World War II poster
Disability-adjusted life year for malaria per 100,000 inhabitants in 2004 no data <10 0–100 100–500 500–1000 1000–1500 1500–2000 2000–2500 2500–2750 2750–3000 3000–3250 3250–3500 ≥3500

Resistance among the parasites has developed to several antimalarial medications; for example, chloroquine-resistant P. falciparum has spread to most malarial areas, and resistance to artemisinin has become a problem in some parts of Southeast Asia.

Plasmodium vivax

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Protozoal parasite and a human pathogen.

Protozoal parasite and a human pathogen.

Chloroquine remains the treatment of choice for vivax malaria, except in Indonesia's Irian Jaya (Western New Guinea) region and the geographically contiguous Papua New Guinea, where chloroquine resistance is common (up to 20% resistance).

Mefloquine

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Medication used to prevent or treat malaria.

Medication used to prevent or treat malaria.

Mefloquine (Lariam) 250mg tablets

Mefloquine is used as a treatment for chloroquine-sensitive or resistant Plasmodium falciparum malaria, and is deemed a reasonable alternative for uncomplicated chloroquine-resistant Plasmodium vivax malaria.

Plasmodium

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Genus of unicellular eukaryotes that are obligate parasites of vertebrates and insects.

Genus of unicellular eukaryotes that are obligate parasites of vertebrates and insects.

Plasmodium is a eukaryote but with unusual features.
Life cycle of a species that infects humans
Ring forms of Plasmodium inside human red blood cells (Giemsa stain)
Sporozoites, one of several different forms of the parasite, from a mosquito
Oldest mosquito fossil with Plasmodium dominicana, 15-20 million year old
Many birds, from raptors to passerines like the red-whiskered bulbul (Pycnonotus jocosus), can carry malaria.
A clinic for treating human malaria in Tanzania
Over 3000 species of lizard, including the Carolina anole (Anolis carolinensis), carry some 90 kinds of malaria.
The mosquito Anopheles stephensi is among the blood-feeding insects that can be infected by a species of Plasmodium.

Resistance to quinine spurred the development of a broad array of antimalarial medications through the 20th century including chloroquine, proguanil, atovaquone, sulfadoxine/pyrimethamine, mefloquine, and artemisinin.

Plasmodium falciparum

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Unicellular protozoan parasite of humans, and the deadliest species of Plasmodium that causes malaria in humans.

Unicellular protozoan parasite of humans, and the deadliest species of Plasmodium that causes malaria in humans.

Laveran's drawing of various stages of P. falciparum as seen on fresh blood (1880).
Blood smear from a P. falciparum culture (K1 strain - asexual forms) - several red blood cells have ring stages inside them. Close to the center is a schizont and on the left a trophozoite.
Ring forms in red blood cells (Giemsa stain)
Life cycle of Plasmodium

In the late 1930s, the Germans developed chloroquine, which went into use in the North African campaigns.

Quinine

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Medication used to treat malaria and babesiosis.

Medication used to treat malaria and babesiosis.

Tonic water, in normal light and ultraviolet "black light". The quinine content of tonic water causes it to fluoresce under black light.
Quinine biosynthesis
19th-century illustration of Cinchona calisaya

This includes the treatment of malaria due to Plasmodium falciparum that is resistant to chloroquine when artesunate is not available.

2017 marked the 40th anniversary of the WHO Model List of Essential Medicines.

WHO Model List of Essential Medicines

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The WHO Model List of Essential Medicines (aka Essential Medicines List or EML ), published by the World Health Organization (WHO), contains the medications considered to be most effective and safe to meet the most important needs in a health system.

The WHO Model List of Essential Medicines (aka Essential Medicines List or EML ), published by the World Health Organization (WHO), contains the medications considered to be most effective and safe to meet the most important needs in a health system.

2017 marked the 40th anniversary of the WHO Model List of Essential Medicines.
A skeletal model of the chemical structure of aspirin
A skeletal model of the chemical structure of albendazole
Pure crystals of ethambutol
Two capsules of atazanavir
Bag containing one unit of fresh frozen plasma
A vial of oral cholera vaccine

Chloroquine

Plasmodium falciparum hemozoin crystals under polarised light.

Hemozoin

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Disposal product formed from the digestion of blood by some blood-feeding parasites.

Disposal product formed from the digestion of blood by some blood-feeding parasites.

Plasmodium falciparum hemozoin crystals under polarised light.
Human red blood cell infected by the malaria parasite Plasmodium falciparum, showing a residual body with brown hemozoin.
Transport vesicle delivering a heme detoxification protein (hdp) to a malaria food vacuole (fv) containing crystals of hemozoin (hz). Scale bar is 0.5 µm.
Isolated P.falciparum hemozoin
Structure of hemozoin, showing hydrogen bonds between hematin units as dotted lines, and coordinate bonds between iron atoms and carboxylate side chains as red lines
Electron micrograph of crystals of hemozoin isolated from the malaria parasite Plasmodium falciparum. Magnified 68,490 times. Hemozoin is produced by template mediated crystallization ("biocrystallization").
Drug heme interaction

Several currently used antimalarial drugs, such as chloroquine and mefloquine, are thought to kill malaria parasites by inhibiting haemozoin biocrystallization.

The life-cycle of various intestinal Entamoeba species

Amoebiasis

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Infection caused by Entamoeba histolytica.

Infection caused by Entamoeba histolytica.

The life-cycle of various intestinal Entamoeba species
Life-cycle of the Entamoeba histolytica
Tissue damage caused by E. histolytica is a result of three main events, host cell death, inflammation, and parasite invasion. Abbreviations: EhMIF, E. histolytica macrophage migration inhibitory factor; MMP, matrix metalloproteinases.
Specimen of the human intestine that was damaged by amebic ulcer.
Significance of Amebiasis
Immature E. histolytica/E. dispar cyst in a concentrated wet mount stained with iodine. This early cyst has only one nucleus and a glycogen mass is visible (brown stain).
Amoebae in a colon biopsy from a case of amoebic dysentery.
Immunohistochemical staining of trophozoites (brown) using specific anti–Entamoeba histolytica macrophage migration inhibitory factor antibodies in a patient with amebic colitis.

Amoebiasis in tissues is treated with either metronidazole, tinidazole, nitazoxanide, dehydroemetine or chloroquine, while luminal infection is treated with diloxanide furoate or iodoquinoline.