A report on East Africa

Image of the region between Lake Victoria (on the right) and Lakes Edward, Kivu and Tanganyika (from north to south) showing dense vegetation (bright green) and fires (red).
The Bab-el-Mandeb crossing in the Red Sea: now some 12 miles (20 km) wide, narrower in prehistory.
Early Iron Age findings in East and Southern Africa
Map of British East Africa in 1911

Eastern subregion of the African continent.

- East Africa
Image of the region between Lake Victoria (on the right) and Lakes Edward, Kivu and Tanganyika (from north to south) showing dense vegetation (bright green) and fires (red).

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Burundi

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Flag of the Kingdom of Burundi (1962–1966).
Independence Square and monument in Bujumbura.
Belligerents of the Second Congo War. Burundi backed the rebels.
View of the capital city Bujumbura in 2006.
Pierre Nkurunziza, President of Burundi in 2005–2020.
Embassy of Burundi in Brussels
Map of Burundi.
Hippos at Kibira National Park in the Northwest of Burundi
A proportional representation of Burundi exports, 2019
Historical development of GDP per capita
Graphical depiction of Burundi's product exports in 28 colour-coded categories in 2009.
Fishermen on Lake Tanganyika.
Bujumbura International Airport terminal in Bujumbura
Bicycles are a popular means of transport in Burundi
Men in colourful dresses and drums
Children in Bujumbura, Burundi
Drums from Gitega.
Football in Burundi.
Carolus Magnus School in Burundi. The school benefits from the campaign "Your Day for Africa" by Aktion Tagwerk.

Burundi, officially the Republic of Burundi (Repuburika y’Uburundi, ; Swahili: Jamuhuri ya Burundi; French: République du Burundi, or ), is a landlocked country in the Great Rift Valley where the African Great Lakes region and East Africa converge.

Nile

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Major north-flowing river in northeastern Africa.

Major north-flowing river in northeastern Africa.

The Nile's drainage basin
Spring at Lake Victoria
White Nile in Uganda
Nile Delta from space
The Blue Nile Falls fed by Lake Tana near the city of Bahir Dar, Ethiopia
Annotated view of the Nile and Red Sea, with a dust storm
Map of Nile tributaries in modern Sudan, showing the Yellow Nile
Reconstruction of the Oikoumene (inhabited world), an ancient map based on Herodotus' description of the world, circa 450 BC
An aerial view of irrigation from the Nile River supporting agriculture in Luxor, Egypt
A felucca traversing the Nile near Aswan
John Hanning Speke c. 1863. Speke was the Victorian explorer who first reached Lake Victoria in 1858, returning to establish it as the source of the Nile by 1862.
A map of the Nile c. 1911, a time when its entire primary course ran through British occupations, condominiums, colonies, and protectorates
The confluence of the Kagera and Ruvubu rivers near Rusumo Falls, part of the Nile's upper reaches
Dhows on the Nile
The Nile passes through Cairo, Egypt's capital city.
Hydropower dams in the Nile (plus huge dam under construction in Ethiopia)
View of the Qasr El Nil Bridge in Cairo, with Gezira Island in the background
El Mek Nimr Bridge in Khartoum
Henry Morton Stanley in 1872. Stanley circumnavigated the lake and confirmed Speke's observations in 1875.
Composite satellite image of the White Nile
Village on the Nile, 1891
Riverboat on the Nile, Egypt 1900
Marsh along the Nile
A river boat crossing the Nile in Uganda
Murchison Falls in Uganda, between Lake Victoria and Lake Kyoga
The Nile in Luxor
The Nile at Dendera, as seen from the SPOT satellite
The Nile flows through Cairo, here contrasting ancient customs of daily life with the modern city of today.
Nile in Cairo

The White Nile starts in equatorial East Africa, and the Blue Nile begins in Ethiopia.

The UN geoscheme, created by the UN Statistics Division. For statistical consistency and convenience, each country or area is shown in one region only. For example, Russia (a transcontinental country in both Europe and Asia) has been included in Eastern Europe only

Subregion

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Part of a larger region or continent and is usually based on location.

Part of a larger region or continent and is usually based on location.

The UN geoscheme, created by the UN Statistics Division. For statistical consistency and convenience, each country or area is shown in one region only. For example, Russia (a transcontinental country in both Europe and Asia) has been included in Eastern Europe only

Eastern Africa

Chronological overview after Nurse and Philippson (2003): 
 1 = 4,000–3,500BP: origin
 2 = 3,500BP: initial expansion 
 "early split": 2.a = Eastern, 2.b = Western 
 3 = 2,000–1,500BP: Urewe nucleus of Eastern Bantu
 4–7: southward advance
 9 = 2,500BP: Congo nucleus
 10 = 2,000–1,000BP: last phase

Bantu expansion

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Hypothesis of major series of migrations of the original Proto-Bantu-speaking group, which spread from an original nucleus around West-Central Africa across much of sub-Saharan Africa.

Hypothesis of major series of migrations of the original Proto-Bantu-speaking group, which spread from an original nucleus around West-Central Africa across much of sub-Saharan Africa.

Chronological overview after Nurse and Philippson (2003): 
 1 = 4,000–3,500BP: origin
 2 = 3,500BP: initial expansion 
 "early split": 2.a = Eastern, 2.b = Western 
 3 = 2,000–1,500BP: Urewe nucleus of Eastern Bantu
 4–7: southward advance
 9 = 2,500BP: Congo nucleus
 10 = 2,000–1,000BP: last phase
Map indicating the spread of the Early Iron Age across Africa; all numbers are AD dates except for the "250 BC" date.
San rock art depicting a shield-carrying Bantu warrior. The movement of Bantu settlers, who migrated southwards and settled in the summer rainfall regions of Southern Africa within the last 2000 years, established a range of relationships with the indigenous San people from bitter conflict to ritual interaction and intermarriage.

In Eastern and Southern Africa, Bantu speakers may have adopted livestock husbandry from other unrelated Cushitic-and Nilotic-speaking peoples they encountered.

100 to 80 thousand year old Skhul V from Israel

Early modern human

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Early modern human (EMH) or anatomically modern human (AMH) are terms used to distinguish Homo sapiens (the only extant Hominina species) that are anatomically consistent with the range of phenotypes seen in contemporary humans from extinct archaic human species.

Early modern human (EMH) or anatomically modern human (AMH) are terms used to distinguish Homo sapiens (the only extant Hominina species) that are anatomically consistent with the range of phenotypes seen in contemporary humans from extinct archaic human species.

100 to 80 thousand year old Skhul V from Israel
Schematic representation of the emergence of H. sapiens from earlier species of Homo. The horizontal axis represents geographic location; the vertical axis represents time in millions of years ago (blue areas denote the presence of a certain species of Homo at a given time and place; late survival of robust australopithecines alongside Homo is indicated in purple). Based on Springer (2012), Homo heidelbergensis is shown as diverging into Neanderthals, Denisovans and H. sapiens. With the rapid expansion of H. sapiens after 60 kya, Neanderthals, Denisovans and unspecified archaic African hominins are shown as again subsumed into the H. sapiens lineage.
A model of the phylogeny of H. sapiens during the Middle Paleolithic. The horizontal axis represents geographic location; the vertical axis represents time in thousands of years ago. Neanderthals, Denisovans and unspecified archaic African hominins are shown as admixed into the H. sapiens lineage. In addition, prehistoric Archaic Human and Eurasian admixture events in modern African populations are indicated.
Overview map of the peopling of the world by anatomically modern humans (numbers indicate dates in thousands of years ago [ka])
Layer sequence at Ksar Akil in the Levantine corridor, and discovery of two fossils of Homo sapiens, dated to 40,800 to 39,200 years BP for "Egbert", and 42,400–41,700 BP for "Ethelruda".
Known archaeological remains of anatomically modern humans in Europe and Africa, directly dated, calibrated carbon dates as of 2013.
Anatomical comparison of skulls of H. sapiens (left) and H. neanderthalensis (right)
(in Cleveland Museum of Natural History)
Features compared are the braincase shape, forehead, browridge, nasal bone, projection, cheek bone angulation, chin and occipital contour
Lithic Industries of early Homo sapiens at Blombos Cave (M3 phase, MIS 5), Southern Cape, South Africa (c. 105,000 – 90,000 years old)
Bifacial silcrete point of early Homo sapiens, from M1 phase (71,000 BCE) layer of Blombos Cave, South Africa
Claimed "oldest known drawing by human hands", discovered in Blombos Cave in South Africa. Estimated to be a 73,000-year-old work of a Homo sapiens.

In September 2019, scientists proposed that the earliest H. sapiens (and last common human ancestor to modern humans) arose between 350,000 and 260,000 years ago through a merging of populations in East and South Africa.

Map of the major Bantu languages shown within the Niger–Congo language family, with non-Bantu languages in greyscale.

Bantu peoples

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The Bantu peoples, or Bantu, are several hundred ethnic groups who speak Bantu languages, spread over a vast area from Central Africa to Southeast Africa and into Southern Africa.

The Bantu peoples, or Bantu, are several hundred ethnic groups who speak Bantu languages, spread over a vast area from Central Africa to Southeast Africa and into Southern Africa.

Map of the major Bantu languages shown within the Niger–Congo language family, with non-Bantu languages in greyscale.
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The Bantu Kingdom of Kongo, c. 1630
A Zulu traditional dancer in Southern Africa
Kongo youth and adults in Kinshasa, Democratic Republic of the Congo
A Kikuyu woman in Kenya
A Makua mother and child in Mozambique
Bubi girls in Equatorial Guinea

They were supposedly spread across Central, East and Southern Africa in the so-called Bantu expansion, a comparatively rapid dissemination taking roughly two millennia and dozens of human generations during the 1st millennium BC and the 1st millennium AD, This concept has often been framed as a mass-migration, but Jan Vansina and others have argued that it was actually a cultural spread and not the movement of any specific populations that could be defined as an enormous group simply on the basis of common language traits.

Areas of Africa controlled by European colonial powers in 1913 (Belgian (yellow), British (salmon), French (blue), German (turquoise), Italian (green), Portuguese (purple), and Spanish (pink) Empires)

Scramble for Africa

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The invasion, annexation, division, and colonization of most of Africa by seven Western European powers during a short period known as New Imperialism .

The invasion, annexation, division, and colonization of most of Africa by seven Western European powers during a short period known as New Imperialism .

Areas of Africa controlled by European colonial powers in 1913 (Belgian (yellow), British (salmon), French (blue), German (turquoise), Italian (green), Portuguese (purple), and Spanish (pink) Empires)
David Livingstone, early explorer of the interior of Africa and fighter against the slave trade
Map of African civilizations and kingdoms prior to European colonialism (spanning roughly 500 BCE to 1500 CE)
Comparison of Africa in the years 1880 and 1913
Contemporary French propaganda poster hailing Major Marchand's trek across Africa toward Fashoda in 1898
The Askari colonial troops in German East Africa, c. 1906
Italian aircraft in action against Ottoman forces during the Italian invasion of Libya in the Italo-Turkish War
Henry Morton Stanley
Pierre Savorgnan de Brazza in his version of "native" dress, photographed by Félix Nadar
From 1885 to 1908, many atrocities were perpetrated in the Congo Free State; in the image Native Congo Free State labourers who failed to meet rubber collection quotas punished by having their hands cut off.
Port Said entrance to Suez Canal, showing De Lesseps' statue
Otto von Bismarck at the Berlin Conference, 1884
Boer child in a British concentration camp during the Second Boer War (1899–1902)
Muhammad Ahmad, leader of the Mahdists. This fundamentalist group of Muslim dervishes overran much of Sudan and fought British forces.
Map depicting the staged pacification of Morocco through to 1934
The Moroccan Sultan Abdelhafid, who led the resistance to French expansionism during the Agadir Crisis
Pygmies and a European. Some pygmies would be exposed in human zoos, such as Ota Benga displayed by eugenicist Madison Grant in the Bronx Zoo.
Poster for the 1906 Colonial Exhibition in Marseilles (France)
Poster for the 1897 Brussels International Exposition.
German Cameroon, painting by R. Hellgrewe, 1908
Equestrian statue of Leopold II of Belgium, the Sovereign of the Congo Free State from 1885 to 1908, Regent Place in Brussels, Belgium
The Foureau-Lamy military expedition sent out from Algiers in 1898 to conquer the Chad Basin and unify all French territories in West Africa.
The Senegalese Tirailleurs, led by Colonel Alfred-Amédée Dodds, conquered Dahomey (present-day Benin) in 1892
Italian settlers in Massawa
Marracuene in Portuguese Mozambique was the site of a decisive battle between Portuguese and Gaza king Gungunhana in 1895
Opening of the railway in Rhodesia, 1899
Following the Fourth Anglo-Ashanti War in 1896, the British proclaimed a protectorate over the Ashanti Kingdom.
Oil and gas concessions in the Sudan – 2004
Lieutenant von Durling with prisoners at Shark Island, one of the German concentration camps used during the Herero and Namaqua genocide

In the middle of the 19th century, European explorers mapped much of East Africa and Central Africa.

Population density of Africa (2000)

North Africa

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Region encompassing the northern portion of the African continent.

Region encompassing the northern portion of the African continent.

Population density of Africa (2000)
Women in Tunisia (1922)
Market of Biskra in Algeria, 1899
The kasbah of Aït Benhaddou in Morocco
The first Roman emperor native to North Africa was Septimius Severus, born in Leptis Magna in present-day Libya.
The Great Mosque of Kairouan in Tunisia, founded by Arab general Uqba ibn Nafi in 670, is one of the oldest and most important mosques in North Africa.
1803 Cedid Atlas, showing the Ottoman held regions of North Africa

Some researchers have postulated that North Africa rather than East Africa served as the exit point for the modern humans who first trekked out of the continent in the Out of Africa migration.

Successive dispersals of
 Homo erectus greatest extent (yellow),
 Homo neanderthalensis greatest extent (ochre) and
 Homo sapiens (red).

Recent African origin of modern humans

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Dominant model of the geographic origin and early migration of anatomically modern humans (Homo sapiens).

Dominant model of the geographic origin and early migration of anatomically modern humans (Homo sapiens).

Successive dispersals of
 Homo erectus greatest extent (yellow),
 Homo neanderthalensis greatest extent (ochre) and
 Homo sapiens (red).
Expansion of early modern humans from Africa through the Near East
Layer sequence at Ksar Akil in the Levantine corridor, and discovery of two fossils of Homo sapiens, dated to 40,800 to 39,200 years BP for "Egbert", and 42,400–41,700 BP for "Ethelruda".
Anatomically Modern Humans known archaeological remains in Europe and Africa, directly dated, calibrated carbon dates as of 2013.
Red Sea crossing
PCA calculated on present-day and ancient individuals from eastern Eurasia and Oceania. PC1 (23,8%) distinguish East-Eurasians and Australo-Melanesians, while PC2 (6,3%) differentiates East-Eurasians along a North to South cline.
Principal component analysis (PCA) of ancient and modern day individuals from worldwide populations. Oceanians (Aboriginal Australians and Papuans) are most differentiated from both East-Eurasians and West-Eurasians.
Map of early diversification of modern humans according to mitochondrial population genetics (see: Haplogroup L).
The frontispiece to Huxley's Evidence as to Man's Place in Nature (1863): the image compares the skeleton of a human to other apes.
The possibility of an origin of L3 in Asia was proposed by Cabrera et al. (2018). 
a: Exit of the L3 precursor to Eurasia. b: Return to Africa and expansion to Asia of basal L3 lineages with subsequent differentiation in both continents.
Map of Y-Chromosome Haplogroups - Dominant haplogroups in pre-colonial populations with proposed migrations routes

By some 50–70,000 years ago, a subset of the bearers of mitochondrial haplogroup L3 migrated from East Africa into the Near East.

Portuguese Mozambique

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Designated during the period in which it was a Portuguese colony.

Designated during the period in which it was a Portuguese colony.

Location of Mozambique in Africa
The Portuguese fortress São Sebastião on Mozambique Island.
Location of Mozambique in Africa
The Island of Mozambique was first occupied by Portuguese explorers in the late 15th century. They quickly established a fort there, and with time a community sprang up and achieved importance as port of call, missionary base and a trading centre. The island is now a UNESCO World Heritage Site.
Painting by Johannes Vingboons of Sofala, c. 1665
View of Lourenço Marques, ca. 1905
Former Portuguese administrative buildings and hospital, on Mozambique Island.
Ponta Vermelha Palace, former residence of the Portuguese governor and current presidential palace of Mozambique
Flag of the Portuguese governor of Mozambique.
Marracuene was the site of a decisive battle between Portuguese and King Gungunhana of Gaza in 1895.
Mount Murresse in Gurué (tea plantation).
Military road map of Portuguese Mozambique
Administrative divisions and ethnic groups of Portuguese Mozambique, 1964
Wedding procession at Tete, from David Livingstone's Narrative of an Expedition to the Zambesi and its Tributaries
Central train station of Lourenço Marques (renamed as Maputo)
Caeiro Lda. Tobacco Factory.
Cahora Bassa Dam reservoir — the dam began construction in 1969 and was at the time one of the biggest in all of Africa.
Portuguese language printing and typesetting class, 1930
The Clube Sport da Beira in the city of Beira.
War in Mozambique, 1961
Lourenço Marques (nowadays Maputo) in 1925.
Eusébio, one of the most famous players in Portuguese football history
Proposed flag for Portuguese Mozambique
Narrow-gauge rail in Beira. 1897.
Inauguration of the "tramuei" (Tramway). Beira, 1901.
Volunteer firemen, 1903.
Beira, 1901.
Portuguese police force in 1925.
Observatory. 1930.
Agronomist office.
Brewery. Beira, 1930.
Teachers and students of the "School of Arts and Trades".
Border post between Portuguese Mozambique and British-Swaziland, 1929.
Beachfront double estate. Beira, 1939.
Large beachfront estate in Beira.
Beachfront estate in Beira, 1939.
Private residence in Beira. 1930.
Standard Bank building, Beira. 1925.
Beira Clube. Beira, 1930.
"Indo-Portuguese recreational center". Beira.
Hotel Polana 1929, once one of the largest and most luxurious in southern Africa.
Courtroom. Beira, 1925.
Cine-Theater. Inhambane.
Colonial residence, Maputo.
Primary school, Maputo.
Maputo Naval Club.
25 reis 1877
100 reis 1895
100 reis 1898.
115 reis 1915
1 escudo 1921
10 centavos 1933

When Portuguese explorers reached East Africa in 1498, Swahili commercial settlements had existed along the Swahili Coast and outlying islands for several centuries.