A report on Electromagnetic induction

Alternating electric current flows through the solenoid on the left, producing a changing magnetic field. This field causes, by electromagnetic induction, an electric current to flow in the wire loop on the right.
Faraday's experiment showing induction between coils of wire: The liquid battery (right) provides a current that flows through the small coil (A), creating a magnetic field. When the coils are stationary, no current is induced. But when the small coil is moved in or out of the large coil (B), the magnetic flux through the large coil changes, inducing a current which is detected by the galvanometer (G).
A diagram of Faraday's iron ring apparatus. Change in the magnetic flux of the left coil induces a current in the right coil.
A solenoid
The longitudinal cross section of a solenoid with a constant electrical current running through it. The magnetic field lines are indicated, with their direction shown by arrows. The magnetic flux corresponds to the 'density of field lines'. The magnetic flux is thus densest in the middle of the solenoid, and weakest outside of it.
Rectangular wire loop rotating at angular velocity ω in radially outward pointing magnetic field B of fixed magnitude. The circuit is completed by brushes making sliding contact with top and bottom discs, which have conducting rims. This is a simplified version of the drum generator.
A current clamp

Production of an electromotive force across an electrical conductor in a changing magnetic field.

- Electromagnetic induction
Alternating electric current flows through the solenoid on the left, producing a changing magnetic field. This field causes, by electromagnetic induction, an electric current to flow in the wire loop on the right.

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Faraday's experiment showing induction between coils of wire: The liquid battery (right) provides a current which flows through the small coil (A), creating a magnetic field. When the coils are stationary, no current is induced. But when the small coil is moved in or out of the large coil (B), the magnetic flux through the large coil changes, inducing a current which is detected by the galvanometer (G).

Faraday's law of induction

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Faraday's experiment showing induction between coils of wire: The liquid battery (right) provides a current which flows through the small coil (A), creating a magnetic field. When the coils are stationary, no current is induced. But when the small coil is moved in or out of the large coil (B), the magnetic flux through the large coil changes, inducing a current which is detected by the galvanometer (G).
A diagram of Faraday's iron ring apparatus. The changing magnetic flux of the left coil induces a current in the right coil.
Faraday's disk, the first electric generator, a type of homopolar generator.
Alternating electric current flows through the solenoid on the left, producing a changing magnetic field. This field causes, by electromagnetic induction, an electric current to flow in the wire loop on the right.
Faraday's homopolar generator. The disc rotates with angular rate {{mvar|ω}}, sweeping the conducting radius circularly in the static magnetic field {{math|B}} (which direction is along the disk surface normal). The magnetic Lorentz force {{math|v × B}} drives a current along the conducting radius to the conducting rim, and from there the circuit completes through the lower brush and the axle supporting the disc. This device generates an emf and a current, although the shape of the "circuit" is constant and thus the flux through the circuit does not change with time.
A wire (solid red lines) connects to two touching metal plates (silver) to form a circuit. The whole system sits in a uniform magnetic field, normal to the page. If the abstract path {{math|∂Σ}} follows the primary path of current flow (marked in red), then the magnetic flux through this path changes dramatically as the plates are rotated, yet the emf is almost zero. After Feynman Lectures on Physics {{Rp|ch17}}

Faraday's law of induction (briefly, Faraday's law) is a basic law of electromagnetism predicting how a magnetic field will interact with an electric circuit to produce an electromotive force (emf)—a phenomenon known as electromagnetic induction.

Faraday c. undefined 1857

Michael Faraday

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English scientist who contributed to the study of electromagnetism and electrochemistry.

English scientist who contributed to the study of electromagnetism and electrochemistry.

Faraday c. undefined 1857
Portrait of Faraday in his late thirties, ca. 1826
Michael Faraday, c. 1861, aged about 70
Three Fellows of the Royal Society offering the presidency to Faraday, 1857
Michael Faraday's grave at Highgate Cemetery, London
Equipment used by Faraday to make glass on display at the Royal Institution in London
Electromagnetic rotation experiment of Faraday, ca. 1821
One of Faraday's 1831 experiments demonstrating induction. The liquid battery (right) sends an electric current through the small coil (A). When it is moved in or out of the large coil (B), its magnetic field induces a momentary voltage in the coil, which is detected by the galvanometer (G).
A diagram of Faraday's iron ring-coil apparatus
Built in 1831, the Faraday disk was the first electric generator. The horseshoe-shaped magnet (A) created a magnetic field through the disk (D). When the disk was turned, this induced an electric current radially outward from the center toward the rim. The current flowed out through the sliding spring contact m, through the external circuit, and back into the center of the disk through the axle.
Faraday (right) and John Daniell (left), founders of electrochemistry.
Faraday holding a type of glass bar he used in 1845 to show magnetism affects light in dielectric material.
Michael Faraday meets Father Thames, from Punch (21 July 1855)
Lighthouse lantern room from mid-1800s
Faraday's apparatus for experimental demonstration of ideomotor effect on table-turning
Faraday delivering a Christmas Lecture at the Royal Institution in 1856.
Statue of Faraday in Savoy Place, London. Sculptor John Henry Foley RA.
Plaque erected in 1876 by the Royal Society of Arts at 48 Blandford Street, Marylebone, London
Chemische Manipulation, 1828
Michael Faraday in his laboratory, c. 1850s.
Michael Faraday's study at the Royal Institution.
Michael Faraday's flat at the Royal Institution.
Artist Harriet Jane Moore who documented Faraday's life in watercolours.
Portrait of Faraday in 1842 by Thomas Phillips

His main discoveries include the principles underlying electromagnetic induction, diamagnetism and electrolysis.

U.S. NRC image of a modern steam turbine generator (STG).

Electric generator

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Device that converts motive power into electric power for use in an external circuit.

Device that converts motive power into electric power for use in an external circuit.

U.S. NRC image of a modern steam turbine generator (STG).
Early Ganz Generator in Zwevegem, West Flanders, Belgium
The Faraday disk was the first electric generator. The horseshoe-shaped magnet (A) created a magnetic field through the disk (D). When the disk was turned, this induced an electric current radially outward from the center toward the rim. The current flowed out through the sliding spring contact m, through the external circuit, and back into the center of the disk through the axle.
Hippolyte Pixii's dynamo. The commutator is located on the shaft below the spinning magnet.
This large belt-driven high-current dynamo produced 310 amperes at 7 volts. Dynamos are no longer used due to the size and complexity of the commutator needed for high power applications.
Ferranti alternating current generator, c. 1900.
A small early 1900s 75 kVA direct-driven power station AC alternator, with a separate belt-driven exciter generator.
The Athlone Power Station in Cape Town, South Africa
Hydroelectric power station at Gabčíkovo Dam, Slovakia
Hydroelectric power station at Glen Canyon Dam, Page, Arizona
Mobile electric generator
Protesters at Occupy Wall Street using bicycles connected to a motor and one-way diode to charge batteries for their electronics

Alternating current generating systems were known in simple forms from Michael Faraday's original discovery of the magnetic induction of electric current.

Gauss's law for magnetism: magnetic field lines never begin nor end but form loops or extend to infinity as shown here with the magnetic field due to a ring of current.

Maxwell's equations

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Maxwell's equations are a set of coupled partial differential equations that, together with the Lorentz force law, form the foundation of classical electromagnetism, classical optics, and electric circuits.

Maxwell's equations are a set of coupled partial differential equations that, together with the Lorentz force law, form the foundation of classical electromagnetism, classical optics, and electric circuits.

Gauss's law for magnetism: magnetic field lines never begin nor end but form loops or extend to infinity as shown here with the magnetic field due to a ring of current.
In a geomagnetic storm, a surge in the flux of charged particles temporarily alters Earth's magnetic field, which induces electric fields in Earth's atmosphere, thus causing surges in electrical power grids. (Not to scale.)
Magnetic-core memory (1954) is an application of Ampère's law. Each core stores one bit of data.
Left: A schematic view of how an assembly of microscopic dipoles produces opposite surface charges as shown at top and bottom. Right: How an assembly of microscopic current loops add together to produce a macroscopically circulating current loop. Inside the boundaries, the individual contributions tend to cancel, but at the boundaries no cancelation occurs.

The electromagnetic induction is the operating principle behind many electric generators: for example, a rotating bar magnet creates a changing magnetic field and generates an electric field in a nearby wire.

The shape of the magnetic field produced by a horseshoe magnet is revealed by the orientation of iron filings sprinkled on a piece of paper above the magnet.

Magnetic field

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Vector field that describes the magnetic influence on moving electric charges, electric currents, and magnetic materials.

Vector field that describes the magnetic influence on moving electric charges, electric currents, and magnetic materials.

The shape of the magnetic field produced by a horseshoe magnet is revealed by the orientation of iron filings sprinkled on a piece of paper above the magnet.
Right hand grip rule: a current flowing in the direction of the white arrow produces a magnetic field shown by the red arrows.
A Solenoid with electric current running through it behaves like a magnet.
A sketch of Earth's magnetic field representing the source of the field as a magnet. The south pole of the magnetic field is near the geographic north pole of the Earth.
One of the first drawings of a magnetic field, by René Descartes, 1644, showing the Earth attracting lodestones. It illustrated his theory that magnetism was caused by the circulation of tiny helical particles, "threaded parts", through threaded pores in magnets.
Hans Christian Ørsted, Der Geist in der Natur, 1854

In 1831, Michael Faraday discovered electromagnetic induction when he found that a changing magnetic field generates an encircling electric field, formulating what is now known as Faraday's law of induction.

A typical reaction path requires the initial reactants to cross an energy barrier, enter an intermediate state and finally emerge in a lower energy configuration. If charge separation is involved, this energy difference can result in an emf. See Bergmann et al. and Transition state.

Electromotive force

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Electrical action produced by a non-electrical source, measured in volts.

Electrical action produced by a non-electrical source, measured in volts.

A typical reaction path requires the initial reactants to cross an energy barrier, enter an intermediate state and finally emerge in a lower energy configuration. If charge separation is involved, this energy difference can result in an emf. See Bergmann et al. and Transition state.
Galvanic cell using a salt bridge
The equivalent circuit of a solar cell; parasitic resistances are ignored in the discussion of the text.
Solar cell voltage as a function of solar cell current delivered to a load for two light-induced currents IL; currents as a ratio with reverse saturation current I0. Compare with Fig. 1.4 in Nelson.

In electromagnetic induction, emf can be defined around a closed loop of conductor as the electromagnetic work that would be done on an electric charge (an electron in this instance) if it travels once around the loop.

Aurora at Alaska showing light created by charged particles and magnetism, fundamental concepts to electromagnetism study

Electromagnetism

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Branch of physics involving the study of the electromagnetic force, a type of physical interaction that occurs between electrically charged particles.

Branch of physics involving the study of the electromagnetic force, a type of physical interaction that occurs between electrically charged particles.

Aurora at Alaska showing light created by charged particles and magnetism, fundamental concepts to electromagnetism study
Hans Christian Ørsted
André-Marie Ampère
James Clerk Maxwell
Representation of the electric field vector of a wave of circularly polarized electromagnetic radiation.
Magnetic reconnection in the solar plasma gives rise to solar flares, a complex magnetohydrodynamical phenomenon.

The CGS unit of magnetic induction (oersted) is named in honor of his contributions to the field of electromagnetism.

Lorentz force acting on fast-moving charged particles in a bubble chamber. Positive and negative charge trajectories curve in opposite directions.

Lorentz force

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Combination of electric and magnetic force on a point charge due to electromagnetic fields.

Combination of electric and magnetic force on a point charge due to electromagnetic fields.

Lorentz force acting on fast-moving charged particles in a bubble chamber. Positive and negative charge trajectories curve in opposite directions.
Lorentz' theory of electrons. Formulas for the Lorentz force (I, ponderomotive force) and the Maxwell equations for the divergence of the electrical field E (II) and the magnetic field B (III), La théorie electromagnétique de Maxwell et son application aux corps mouvants, 1892, p. 451. V is the velocity of light.
Charged particle drifts in a homogeneous magnetic field. (A) No disturbing force (B) With an electric field, E (C) With an independent force, F (e.g. gravity) (D) In an inhomogeneous magnetic field, grad H
Right-hand rule for a current-carrying wire in a magnetic field B
Lorentz force -image on a wall in Leiden
Lorentz force -image on a wall in Leiden

The electric field in question is created by the changing magnetic field, resulting in an induced EMF, as described by the Maxwell–Faraday equation (one of the four modern Maxwell's equations).

James Clerk Maxwell

James Clerk Maxwell

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Scottish mathematician and scientist responsible for the classical theory of electromagnetic radiation, which was the first theory to describe electricity, magnetism and light as different manifestations of the same phenomenon.

Scottish mathematician and scientist responsible for the classical theory of electromagnetic radiation, which was the first theory to describe electricity, magnetism and light as different manifestations of the same phenomenon.

James Clerk Maxwell
Clerk Maxwell's birthplace at 14 India Street in Edinburgh is now the home of the James Clerk Maxwell Foundation.
Edinburgh Academy, where Maxwell was educated
Old College, University of Edinburgh
A young Maxwell at Trinity College, Cambridge, holding one of his colour wheels.
Maxwell proved that the Rings of Saturn were made of numerous small particles.
James Clark Maxwell and his wife by Jemima Blackburn.
Commemoration of Maxwell's equations at King's College. One of three identical IEEE Milestone Plaques, the others being at Maxwell's birthplace in Edinburgh and the family home at Glenlair.
Blue plaque, 16 Palace Gardens Terrace, Kensington, Maxwell's home, 1860–1865
The gravestone at Parton Kirk (Galloway) of James Clerk Maxwell, his parents and his wife
This memorial stone to James Clerk Maxwell stands on a green in front of the church, beside the war memorial at Parton (Galloway).
James Clark Maxwell by Jemima Blackburn.
A postcard from Maxwell to Peter Tait
First durable colour photographic image, demonstrated by Maxwell in an 1861 lecture
Maxwell's demon, a thought experiment where entropy decreases
The James Clerk Maxwell Monument in Edinburgh, by Alexander Stoddart. Commissioned by The Royal Society of Edinburgh; unveiled in 2008.

In it he provided a conceptual model for electromagnetic induction, consisting of tiny spinning cells of magnetic flux.

Lenz's law tells the direction of a current in a conductor loop induced indirectly by the change in magnetic flux through the loop. Scenarios a, b, c, d and e are possible. Scenario f is impossible due to the law of conservation of energy. The charges (electrons) in the conductor are not pushed in motion directly by the change in flux, but by a circular electric field (not pictured) surrounding the total magnetic field of inducing and induced magnetic fields. This total magnetic field induces the electric field.

Lenz's law

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Lenz's law tells the direction of a current in a conductor loop induced indirectly by the change in magnetic flux through the loop. Scenarios a, b, c, d and e are possible. Scenario f is impossible due to the law of conservation of energy. The charges (electrons) in the conductor are not pushed in motion directly by the change in flux, but by a circular electric field (not pictured) surrounding the total magnetic field of inducing and induced magnetic fields. This total magnetic field induces the electric field.

Lenz's law, named after the physicist Emil Lenz (pronounced ) who formulated it in 1834, says that the direction of the electric current induced in a conductor by a changing magnetic field is such that the magnetic field created by the induced current opposes changes in the initial magnetic field.