Galileo Galilei and Related Topics

Pendulum

Weight suspended from a pivot so that it can swing freely.

Replica of Zhang Heng's seismometer. The pendulum is contained inside.

The Foucault pendulum in 1851 was the first demonstration of the Earth's rotation that did not involve celestial observations, and it created a "pendulum mania". In this animation the rate of precession is greatly exaggerated.

Mercury pendulum in Howard astronomical regulator clock, 1887

A Shortt-Synchronome free pendulum clock, the most accurate pendulum clock ever made, at the NIST museum, Gaithersburg, MD, USA. It kept time with two synchronized pendulums. The master pendulum in the vacuum tank (left) swung free of virtually any disturbance, and controlled the slave pendulum in the clock case (right) which performed the impulsing and timekeeping tasks. Its accuracy was about a second per year.

The seconds pendulum, a pendulum with a period of two seconds so each swing takes one second

Borda & Cassini's 1792 measurement of the length of the seconds pendulum

Measuring gravity with an invariable pendulum, Madras, India, 1821

Pendulums used in Mendenhall gravimeter, 1890

Quartz pendulums used in Gulf gravimeter, 1929

Two pendulums with the same period coupled by suspending them from a common support string. The oscillation alternates between the two.

Repetition of Huygens experiment showing synchronization of two clocks

Pendulum in the Metropolitan Cathedral, Mexico City.

From the first scientific investigations of the pendulum around 1602 by Galileo Galilei, the regular motion of pendulums was used for timekeeping and was the world's most accurate timekeeping technology until the 1930s.

Mayall telescope at Kitt Peak National Observatory

Observational astronomy

Division of astronomy that is concerned with recording data about the observable universe, in contrast with theoretical astronomy, which is mainly concerned with calculating the measurable implications of physical models.

An assembly in Estonia to observe meteors

The Crab Nebula as seen in various wavelengths

Ultra HD photography taken at La Silla Observatory.

ALMA is the world's most powerful telescope for studying the Universe at submillimeter and millimeter wavelengths.

Fully-steerable radio telescope in Green Bank, West Virginia.

One of the Oldest Observatories in South America is the Quito Astronomical Observatory, founded in 1873 and located 12 minutes south of the Equator in Quito, Ecuador. The Quito Astronomical Observatory is the National Observatory of Ecuador and is located in the Historic Center of Quito and is managed by the National Polytechnic School.

An amateur astrophotography setup with an automated guide system connected to a laptop.

$50 cm refracting telescope at Nice Observatory.$

The main platform at La Silla hosts a huge range of telescopes with which astronomers can explore the Universe.

Galileo Galilei turned a telescope to the heavens and recorded what he saw.

Speed

Object is the magnitude of the rate of change of its position with time or the magnitude of the change of its position per unit of time; it is thus a scalar quantity.

Italian physicist Galileo Galilei is usually credited with being the first to measure speed by considering the distance covered and the time it takes.

Physicist

Scientist who specializes in the field of physics, which encompasses the interactions of matter and energy at all length and time scales in the physical universe.

In an 18th-century experiment in "natural philosophy" (later to be called "physics") English scientist Francis Hauksbee works with an early electrostatic generator.

Experimental physicists at work at the accelerator laboratory of the University of Jyväskylä (Finland).

The modern scientific worldview and the bulk of physics education can be said to flow from the scientific revolution in Europe, starting with the work of astronomer Nicolaus Copernicus leading to the physics of Galileo Galilei and Johannes Kepler in the early 1600s.

Galilean moons

The Galilean moons, or Galilean satellites, are the four largest moons of Jupiter: Io, Europa, Ganymede, and Callisto.

Two Hubble Space Telescope views of a rare triple transit of Jupiter by Europa, Callisto and Io (24 January 2015)

Galileo Galilei, the discoverer of the four moons

The Medician stars in the Sidereus Nuncius (the 'starry messenger'), 1610. The moons are drawn in changing positions.

A Jovilabe: an apparatus from the mid-18th century for demonstrating the orbits of Jupiter's satellites

Callisto's Valhalla impact crater as seen by Voyager.

Comparison of (a part of) Jupiter and its four largest natural satellites

Surface features of the four members at different levels of zoom in each row

Galilean moons compared with moons of other planets (and with Earth; the scale is changed to 1 pixel = 94 km at this resolution).

The relative masses of the Jovian moons. Those smaller than Europa are not visible at this scale, and combined would only be visible at 100× magnification.

Jupiter and all of the Galilean moons as seen through an 25 cm amateur telescope (Meade LX200).

Jupiter with the Galilean moons – Io, Ganymede, Europa, and Callisto (near maximum elongation), respectively – and the full Moon as seen around conjunction on 10 April 2017

They were first seen by Galileo Galilei in December 1609 or January 1610, and recognized by him as satellites of Jupiter in March 1610.

Telescope

Optical instrument using lenses, curved mirrors, or a combination of both to observe distant objects, or various devices used to observe distant objects by their emission, absorption, or reflection of electromagnetic radiation.

The 60-inch Hale (debuted in 1908) considered to be the first modern large research reflecting telescope.

The primary mirror assembly of James Webb Space Telescope under construction. This is a segmented mirror and its coated with Gold to reflect (orange-red) visible light, through near-infrared to the mid-infrared

Modern telescopes typically use CCDs instead of film for recording images. This is the sensor array in the Kepler spacecraft.

A 1.2-meter (47 in) reflecting telescope

The Very Large Array at Socorro, New Mexico, United States.

Einstein Observatory was a space-based focusing optical X-ray telescope from 1978.

The Compton Gamma Ray Observatory is released into orbit by the Space Shutte in 1991, and it would operate until the year 2000

The reflectors of HEGRA detect flashes of light in the atmosphere, thus detecting high energy particles

A diagram of the electromagnetic spectrum with the Earth's atmospheric transmittance (or opacity) and the types of telescopes used to image parts of the spectrum.

Six views of the Crab nebula supernova remnant, viewed at different wavelengths of light by various telescopes

The Five-hundred-meter Aperture Spherical radio Telescope in Guizhou, China, is the world's largest filled-aperture radio telescope

The word telescope was coined in 1611 by the Greek mathematician Giovanni Demisiani for one of Galileo Galilei's instruments presented at a banquet at the Accademia dei Lincei.

Full disk view in natural colour, taken by the Hubble Space Telescope in April 2014

Jupiter

Fifth planet from the Sun and the largest in the Solar System.

Jupiter's diameter is one order of magnitude smaller (×0.10045) than that of the Sun, and one order of magnitude larger (×10.9733) than that of Earth. The Great Red Spot is roughly the same size as Earth.

Diagram of Jupiter, its interior, surface features, rings, and inner moons.

Time-lapse sequence from the approach of Voyager 1, showing the motion of atmospheric bands and circulation of the Great Red Spot. Recorded over 32 days with one photograph taken every 10 hours (once per Jovian day). See [[:File:Jupiter from Voyager 1 PIA02855 max quality.ogv|full size video]].

Close up of the Great Red Spot imaged by the Juno spacecraft in April 2018

The Great Red Spot is decreasing in size (May 15, 2014)

Jupiter (red) completes one orbit of the Sun (centre) for every 11.86 orbits by Earth (blue)

A rotation time-lapse of Jupiter over 3 hours

Model in the Almagest of the longitudinal motion of Jupiter (☉) relative to Earth (🜨)

Galileo Galilei, discoverer of the four largest moons of Jupiter, now known as Galilean moons

Infrared image of Jupiter taken by ESO's Very Large Telescope

Jupiter as seen by the space probe Cassini

A photograph of Jupiter taken by the Juno spacecraft, at the end of a close flyby
(September 2018)

Jupiter, as seen by the Juno spacecraft
(February 12, 2019)

Diagram showing the Trojan asteroids in Jupiter's orbit, as well as the main asteroid belt

Hubble image taken on July 23, 2009, showing a blemish about 5000 miles long left by the 2009 Jupiter impact event.

Jupiter, woodcut from a 1550 edition of Guido Bonatti's Liber Astronomiae

Infrared view of Jupiter, imaged by the Gemini North telescope in Hawaiʻi on January 11, 2017

Jupiter imaged in visible light by the Hubble Space Telescope on January 11, 2017

Ultraviolet view of Jupiter, imaged by Hubble on January 11, 2017<ref>{{cite web|title=By Jove! Jupiter Shows Its Stripes and Colors|publisher=National Science Foundation|website=NOIRLab|date=May 11, 2021|url=https://noirlab.edu/public/news/noirlab2116/|access-date=June 17, 2021}}</ref>

This image of Jupiter and Europa, taken by Hubble on 25 August 2020, was captured when the planet was 653 million kilometres from Earth.<ref>{{cite web|title=Hubble Finds Evidence of Persistent Water Vapour Atmosphere on Europa|website=ESA Hubble|publisher=European Space Agency|date=October 14, 2021|url=https://esahubble.org/news/heic2111/|access-date=October 26, 2021}}</ref>

Jupiter has 80 known moons and possibly many more, including the four large moons discovered by Galileo Galilei in 1610: Io, Europa, Ganymede, and Callisto.

Projectile motion

Form of motion experienced by an object or particle that is projected near Earth's surface and moves along a curved path under the action of gravity only (in particular, the effects of air resistance are passive and assumed to be negligible).

Components of initial velocity of parabolic throwing

Trajectories of a projectile with air drag and varying initial velocities

The horizontal and vertical components of a projectile's velocity are independent of each other.

Displacement and coordinates of parabolic throwing

Vacuum trajectory of a projectile for different launch angles. Launch speed is the same for all angles, 50 m/s if "g" is 10 m/s2.

Trajectories of a skydiver in air with Newton drag

Lofted trajectories of North Korean missiles Hwasong-14 and Hwasong-15

Projectile trajectory around a planet, compared to the motion in a uniform field

This curved path was shown by Galileo to be a parabola, but may also be a straight line in the special case when it is thrown directly upwards.

Accademia dei Lincei

One of the oldest and most prestigious European scientific institutions, located at the Palazzo Corsini on the Via della Lungara in Rome, Italy.

Galileo Galilei was the intellectual centre of the academy and adopted "Galileo Galilei Linceo" as his signature.

Santa Croce, Florence

Principal Franciscan church in Florence, Italy, and a minor basilica of the Roman Catholic Church.

The original brick west front (before the 1860s Gothic Revival embellishments by Niccolò Matas)

A gate in the gardens with the letters "OPA" for ora pro animis ("pray for souls")

Giotto's Death of St. Francis (early 1320s) with overpainting removed

It is the burial place of some of the most illustrious Italians, such as Michelangelo, Galileo, Machiavelli, the poet Foscolo, the philosopher Gentile and the composer Rossini, thus it is known also as the Temple of the Italian Glories (Tempio dell'Itale Glorie).