A report on Hippocampus and Locus coeruleus

Humans have two hippocampi, one in each hemisphere of the brain. They are located in the medial temporal lobes of the cerebrum. In this lateral view of the human brain, the frontal lobe is at the left, the occipital lobe at the right, and the temporal and parietal lobes have largely been removed to reveal one of the hippocampi underneath.
Rhomboid fossa. (Locus coeruleus not labeled, but is very near [just lateral to] the colliculus facialis, which is labeled at center left.)
Image 1: The human hippocampus and fornix (left) compared with a seahorse (right)
Locus coeruleus and its influence pathways
Image 2: Cross-section of cerebral hemisphere showing structure and location of hippocampus
Image 3: Coronal section of the brain of a macaque monkey, showing hippocampus (circled)
Image 4: Basic circuit of the hippocampus, as drawn by Cajal DG: dentate gyrus. Sub: subiculum. EC: entorhinal cortex
Image 5: Hippocampal location and regions
Rats and cognitive maps
Image 6: Spatial firing patterns of 8 place cells recorded from the CA1 layer of a rat. The rat ran back and forth along an elevated track, stopping at each end to eat a small food reward. Dots indicate positions where action potentials were recorded, with color indicating which neuron emitted that action potential.
Image 7: Examples of rat hippocampal EEG and CA1 neural activity in the theta (awake/behaving) and LIA (slow-wave sleep) modes. Each plot shows 20 seconds of data, with a hippocampal EEG trace at the top, spike rasters from 40 simultaneously recorded CA1 pyramidal cells in the middle (each raster line represents a different cell), and a plot of running speed at the bottom. The top plot represents a time period during which the rat was actively searching for scattered food pellets. For the bottom plot the rat was asleep.
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Image 9: An EEG showing epilepsy right-hippocampal seizure onset
Image 10: An EEG showing epilepsy left-hippocampal seizure onset
Image 11: Drawing by Italian pathologist Camillo Golgi of a hippocampus stained using the silver nitrate method
thumb|Hippocampus highlighted in green on coronal T1 MRI images
thumb|Hippocampus highlighted in green on sagittal T1 MRI images
thumb|Hippocampus highlighted in green on transversal T1 MRI images

LC → Amygdala and Hippocampus

- Locus coeruleus

Different thalamic nuclei, (from the anterior and midline groups), the medial septal nucleus, the supramammillary nucleus of the hypothalamus, and the raphe nuclei and locus coeruleus of the brainstem all send axons to the EC, so that it serves as the interface between the neocortex and the other connections, and the hippocampus.

- Hippocampus
Humans have two hippocampi, one in each hemisphere of the brain. They are located in the medial temporal lobes of the cerebrum. In this lateral view of the human brain, the frontal lobe is at the left, the occipital lobe at the right, and the temporal and parietal lobes have largely been removed to reveal one of the hippocampi underneath.

3 related topics with Alpha

Overall
Location of the amygdalae in the human brain

Amygdala

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One of two almond-shaped clusters of nuclei located deep and medially within the temporal lobes of the brain's cerebrum in complex vertebrates, including humans.

One of two almond-shaped clusters of nuclei located deep and medially within the temporal lobes of the brain's cerebrum in complex vertebrates, including humans.

Location of the amygdalae in the human brain
Human brain in the coronal orientation. Amygdalae are shown in dark red.
MRI coronal view of the right amygdala
Coronal section of brain through intermediate mass of third ventricle. Amygdala is shown in purple.
Rorschach test blot 03
Frontal and side view of amygdala
Amygdala along with other subcortical regions, in glass brain.
Dorsal view of the amygdala in an average human brain
Frontal view of the amygdala in an average human brain
Left lateral view of the amygdala in an average human brain
thumb|Amygdala highlighted in green on coronal T1 MRI images
thumb|Amygdala highlighted in green on sagittal T1 MRI images
thumb|Amygdala highlighted in green on transversal T1 MRI images

A simple view of the information processing through the amygdala follows as: the amygdala sends projections to the hypothalamus, the dorsomedial thalamus, the thalamic reticular nucleus, the nuclei of the trigeminal nerve and the facial nerve, the ventral tegmental area, the locus coeruleus, and the laterodorsal tegmental nucleus.

A 2003 study found that adult and adolescent bipolar patients tended to have considerably smaller amygdala volumes and somewhat smaller hippocampal volumes.

Service members use art to relieve PTSD symptoms.

Post-traumatic stress disorder

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Mental and behavioral disorder that can develop because of exposure to a traumatic event, such as sexual assault, warfare, traffic collisions, child abuse, domestic violence, or other threats on a person's life.

Mental and behavioral disorder that can develop because of exposure to a traumatic event, such as sexual assault, warfare, traffic collisions, child abuse, domestic violence, or other threats on a person's life.

Service members use art to relieve PTSD symptoms.
No quieren (They do not want to) by Francisco Goya (1746–1828) depicts an elderly woman wielding a knife in defense of a girl being assaulted by a soldier.
Regions of the brain associated with stress and post-traumatic stress disorder
The diagram depicts how emotions, thoughts, and behaviors all influence each other. The triangle in the middle represents CBT's tenet that all humans' core beliefs can be summed up in three categories: self, others, future.
Vietnam Veterans Memorial, Washington, D.C.
Statue, Three Servicemen, Vietnam Veterans Memorial
Disability-adjusted life year rates for post-traumatic stress disorder per 100,000 inhabitants in 2004 no data < 43.5 43.5–45 45–46.5 46.5–48 48–49.5 49.5–51 51–52.5 52.5–54 54–55.5 55.5–57 57–58.5 > 58.5

Heightened startle responses and, with only preliminary results, a smaller hippocampal volume have been identified as possible biomarkers for heightened risk of developing PTSD.

The maintenance of fear has been shown to include the HPA axis, the locus coeruleus-noradrenergic systems, and the connections between the limbic system and frontal cortex.

Drawing comparing a normal aged brain (left) and the brain of a person with Alzheimer's. Characteristics that separate the two are pointed out.

Alzheimer's disease

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Neurodegenerative disease that usually starts slowly and progressively worsens.

Neurodegenerative disease that usually starts slowly and progressively worsens.

Drawing comparing a normal aged brain (left) and the brain of a person with Alzheimer's. Characteristics that separate the two are pointed out.
Stages of atrophy in Alzheimer's.
A normal brain on the left and a late-stage Alzheimer's brain on the right
In Alzheimer's disease, changes in tau protein lead to the disintegration of microtubules in brain cells.
Histopathologic images of Alzheimer's disease, in the CA3 area of the hippocampus, showing an amyloid plaque (top right), neurofibrillary tangles (bottom left), and granulovacuolar degeneration bodies (bottom center)
PET scan of the brain of a person with Alzheimer's disease showing a loss of function in the temporal lobe
Cognitive tests such as the Mini–Mental State Examination (MMSE) can help in the diagnosis of Alzheimer's disease. In this test instructions are given to copy drawings like the one shown, remember some words, read, and subtract numbers serially.
Intellectual activities such as playing chess or regular social interaction have been linked to a reduced risk of Alzheimer's disease in epidemiological studies, although no causal relationship has been found.
Three-dimensional molecular model of donepezil, an acetylcholinesterase inhibitor used in the treatment of Alzheimer's disease symptoms
Molecular structure of memantine, a medication approved for advanced Alzheimer's disease symptoms
Alois Alzheimer's patient Auguste Deter in 1902. Hers was the first described case of what became known as Alzheimer's disease.
Self-portrait of artist William Utermohlen, created after Alzheimer's disease diagnosis

The disease is known to target the hippocampus which is associated with memory, and this is responsible for the first symptoms of memory impairment.

Degeneration is also present in brainstem nuclei particularly the locus coeruleus in the pons.