Hydropower and Related Topics

A Roberts loom in a weaving shed in 1835.

Industrial Revolution

The transition to new manufacturing processes in Great Britain, continental Europe, and the United States, in the period from about 1760 to sometime between 1820 and 1840.

Handloom weaving in 1747, from William Hogarth's Industry and Idleness

European colonial empires at the start of the Industrial Revolution, superimposed upon modern political boundaries.

A model of the spinning jenny in a museum in Wuppertal. Invented by James Hargreaves in 1764, the spinning jenny was one of the innovations that started the revolution.

The only surviving example of a spinning mule built by the inventor Samuel Crompton. The mule produced high-quality thread with minimal labour. Bolton Museum, Greater Manchester

The interior of Marshall's Temple Works in Leeds, West Yorkshire

Lombe's Mill site today, rebuilt as Derby Silk Mill

The reverberatory furnace could produce cast iron using mined coal. The burning coal remained separate from the iron and so did not contaminate the iron with impurities like sulfur and silica. This opened the way to increased iron production.

The Iron Bridge, Shropshire, England, the world's first bridge constructed of iron opened in 1781.

Horizontal (lower) and vertical (upper) cross-sections of a single puddling furnace. A. Fireplace grate; B. Firebricks; C. Cross binders; D. Fireplace; E. Work door; F. Hearth; G. Cast iron retaining plates; H. Bridge wall

A Watt steam engine. James Watt transformed the steam engine from a reciprocating motion that was used for pumping to a rotating motion suited to industrial applications. Watt and others significantly improved the efficiency of the steam engine.

Newcomen's steam-powered atmospheric engine was the first practical piston steam engine. Subsequent steam engines were to power the Industrial Revolution.

Maudslay's famous early screw-cutting lathes of circa 1797 and 1800

The Middletown milling machine of c. 1818, associated with Robert Johnson and Simeon North

The Thames Tunnel (opened 1843).
Cement was used in the world's first underwater tunnel.

The Crystal Palace housed the Great Exhibition of 1851

The Bridgewater Canal, famous because of its commercial success, crossing the Manchester Ship Canal, one of the last canals to be built.

Construction of the first macadam road in the United States (1823). In the foreground, workers are breaking stones "so as not to exceed 6 ounces in weight or to pass a two-inch ring".

Painting depicting the opening of the Liverpool and Manchester Railway in 1830, the first inter-city railway in the world and which spawned Railway Mania due to its success.

Winchester High Street, 1853. The number of High Streets (the primary street for retail in Britain) in towns and cities rapidly grew in the 18th century.

The Black Country in England, west of Birmingham

Manchester, England ("Cottonopolis"), pictured in 1840, showing the mass of factory chimneys

A young "drawer" pulling a coal tub along a mine gallery. In Britain, laws passed in 1842 and 1844 improved mine working conditions.

Levels of air pollution rose during the Industrial Revolution, sparking the first modern environmental laws to be passed in the mid-19th century.

Slater's Mill in Pawtucket, Rhode Island.

Sächsische Maschinenfabrik in Chemnitz, Germany, 1868

Sir Henry Bessemer's Bessemer converter, the most important technique for making steel from the 1850s to the 1950s. Located in Sheffield (Steel City)

Regional GDP per capita changed very little for most of human history before the Industrial Revolution.

Interior of the London Coal Exchange, c. 1808.
European 17th-century colonial expansion, international trade, and creation of financial markets produced a new legal and financial environment, one which supported and enabled 18th-century industrial growth.

As the Industrial Revolution developed British manufactured output surged ahead of other economies.

William Bell Scott Iron and Coal, 1855–60

William and Mary Presenting the Cap of Liberty to Europe, 1716, Sir James Thornhill. Enthroned in heaven with the Virtues behind them are the royals William III and Mary II who had taken the throne after the Glorious Revolution and signed the English Bill of Rights of 1689. William tramples on arbitrary power and hands the red cap of liberty to Europe where, unlike Britain, absolute monarchy stayed the normal form of power execution. Below William is the French king Louis XIV.

A Philosopher Lecturing on the Orrery by Joseph Wright of Derby (c. 1766). Informal philosophical societies spread scientific advances

A primitive lifestyle living outside the Industrial Revolution

A dog forced to eat trash due to pollution, the Industrial Revolution has forced animals into harsh environments most are unable to survive in, leading to starvation and eventual extinction

This transition included going from hand production methods to machines, new chemical manufacturing and iron production processes, the increasing use of steam power and water power, the development of machine tools and the rise of the mechanized factory system.

Glen Canyon Dam on the Colorado River, Arizona, USA

Dam

Barrier that stops or restricts the flow of surface water or underground streams.

Lake Vyrnwy Dam, Wales, finished in 1888

Karapuzha Dam, an earthen dam in the Indian state of Kerala

Imatrankoski Dam on the Vuoksi River in Imatra, Finland

Afsluitdijk with the Wadden Sea (a part of the North Sea) on the left and the IJsselmeer on the right in the Netherlands

The Roman dam at Cornalvo in Spain has been in use for almost two millennia.

Remains of the Band-e Kaisar dam, built by the Romans in the 3rd century AD

An engraving of the Rideau Canal locks at Bytown

Masonry arch wall, Parramatta, New South Wales, the first engineered dam built in Australia

Daniel-Johnson Dam, Quebec, is a multiple-arch buttress dam.

The Grand Coulee Dam is an example of a solid gravity dam.

The Hoover Dam is an example of an arch-gravity dam.

Gathright Dam in Virginia is a rock-fill embankment dam.

Redridge Steel Dam, built 1905, Michigan

A cofferdam during the construction of locks at the Montgomery Point Lock and Dam

Hydraulic turbine and electric generator

Spillway on Llyn Brianne dam, Wales, soon after first fill

Wood and garbage accumulation due to a dam

South Fork Dam failure and resulting flood that destroyed Johnstown in Pennsylvania in 1889

International special sign for works and installations containing dangerous forces

Hydropower is often used in conjunction with dams to generate electricity.

Watermill

Model of a Roman water-powered grain-mill described by Vitruvius. The millstone (upper floor) is powered by an undershot waterwheel by the way of a gear mechanism (lower floor)

Scheme of the Roman Hierapolis sawmill, the earliest known machine to incorporate a crank and connecting rod mechanism.

Roman turbine mill at Chemtou, Tunisia. The tangential water inflow of the millrace made the horizontal wheel in the shaft turn like a true turbine, the earliest known.

German ship mills on the Rhine, around 1411

A Northern Song era (960–1127) water-powered mill for dehusking grain with a horizontal wheel

An Afghan water mill photographed during the Second Anglo-Afghan War (1878-1880). The rectangular water mill has a thatched roof and traditional design with a small horizontal mill-house built of stone or perhaps mud bricks

A watermill in Tapolca, Veszprem County, Hungary

Roblin's Mill, a watermill, at Black Creek Pioneer Village in Toronto, Ontario, Canada

Watermills on the Pliva in Jajce, Bosnia and Herzegovina

The interior of a functional watermill at Weald and Downland Open Air Museum

Mulino Meraviglia in San Vittore Olona, Italy, along Olona river

Dalgarven Mill, Ayrshire, United Kingdom

A breastshot waterwheel at Dalgarven Mill, United Kingdom

Undershot water wheel, applied for watermilling since the 1st century BC

Overshot water wheel, applied for watermilling since the 1st century BC

Breastshot water wheel, applied for watermilling since the 3rd century AD<ref name="Wikander 2000, 375"/>

Pitchback water wheel, often used to increase the power generated by a breastshot wheel<ref name="Yorke">{{cite book|last=Yorke|first=Stan|title=The Industrial Revolution explained|publisher=Countryside Books|location=Newbury, Berks|year=2005|pages=20–31|isbn=978-1-85306-935-2}}</ref>

A watermill or water mill is a mill that uses hydropower.

The Three Gorges Dam in Central China is the world's largest power–producing facility of any kind.

Hydroelectricity

Museum Hydroelectric power plant ″Under the Town″ in Serbia, built in 1900.

The Warwick Castle water-powered generator house, used for the generation of electricity for the castle from 1894 until 1940

Pico hydroelectricity in Mondulkiri, Cambodia

Measurement of the tailrace and forebay rates at the Limestone Generating Station in Manitoba, Canada.

The Ffestiniog Power Station can generate 360 MW of electricity within 60 seconds of the demand arising.

Merowe Dam in Sudan. Hydroelectric power stations that use dams submerge large areas of land due to the requirement of a reservoir. These changes to land color or albedo, alongside certain projects that concurrently submerge rainforests, can in these specific cases result in the global warming impact, or equivalent life-cycle greenhouse gases of hydroelectricity projects, to potentially exceed that of coal power stations.

The Hoover Dam in the United States is a large conventional dammed-hydro facility, with an installed capacity of 2,080 MW.

Trends in the top five hydroelectricity-producing countries

Share of electricity production from hydropower, 2020

Hydroelectricity, or hydroelectric power, is electricity produced from hydropower.

Trip hammer

Massive powered hammer.

The same trip hammer in operation, shaping a folding knife at the strike area

A water powered trip hammer from the Nong Shu by Wang Zhen (fl. 1290–1333)

Hydrodynamic powered trip hammer set, illustration from the Tiangong Kaiwu encyclopedia of 1637, written by Song Yingxing (1587–1666)

The regular indentations on the Carreg Pumsaint and similar mortar blocks are believed to stem from mechanically operated trip hammers.

Water-powered ore crusher by Georgius Agricola

Water-powered hammers at Abbeydale Industrial Hamlet

Historically, trip hammers were often powered hydraulically by a water wheel.

River

Natural flowing watercourse, usually freshwater, flowing towards an ocean, sea, lake or another river.

Melting toe of Athabasca Glacier, Jasper National Park, Alberta, Canada

The Colorado River at Horseshoe Bend, Arizona

The Porvoo River (Porvoonjoki) in the medieval town of Porvoo, Finland

Nile River delta, as seen from Earth orbit. The Nile is an example of a wave-dominated delta that has the classic Greek letter delta (Δ) shape after which river deltas were named.

A radar image of a 400 km river of methane and ethane near the north pole of Saturn's moon Titan

Flash flooding caused by a large amount of rain falling in a short amount of time

The mouth of the River Seaton in Cornwall after heavy rain caused flooding and significant erosion of the beach.

Leisure activities on the River Avon at Avon Valley Country Park, Keynsham, United Kingdom. A boat giving trips to the public passes a moored private boat.

Most of the major cities of the world are situated on the banks of rivers, as they are, or were, used as a source of water, for obtaining food, for transport, as borders, as a defensive measure, as a source of hydropower to drive machinery, for bathing, and as a means of disposing of waste.

Renewable energy

Energy that is collected from renewable resources that are naturally replenished on a human timescale.

Coal, oil, and natural gas remain the primary global energy sources even as renewables have begun rapidly increasing.

PlanetSolar, the world's largest solar-powered boat and the first ever solar electric vehicle to circumnavigate the globe (in 2012)

The Three Gorges Dam on the Yangtze River in China

Wind energy generation by region over time.

Global map of wind power density potential.

Satellite image of the Bhadla Solar Park in India, it is the largest Solar Park in the world

Steam rising from the Nesjavellir Geothermal Power Station in Iceland

Enhanced geothermal system (see [[:File:EGS diagram.svg|file description]] for details)

Estimated power demand over a week in 2012 and 2020, Germany, showing the need for dispatchable generation rather than baseload generation in the grid.

A comparison of prices over time for energy from nuclear fission and from other sources. Over the presented time, thousands of wind turbines and similar were built on assembly lines in mass production resulting in an economy of scale.

In 2020, renewables overtook fossil fuels as the European Union's main source of electricity for the first time.

Comparing worldwide energy use, the growth of renewable energy is shown by the green line

Worldwide growth of wind capacity (1996–2018)

Four offshore wind farms are in the Thames Estuary area: Kentish Flats, Gunfleet Sands, Thanet and London Array. The latter is the largest in the world as of April 2013.

Ivanpah solar plant in the Mojave Desert, California, United States

Solar towers of the PS10 and PS20 solar thermal plants in Spain

Solar panels at the 550 MW Topaz Solar Farm

Brazil produces bioethanol made from sugarcane available throughout the country. A typical gas station with dual fuel service is marked "A" for alcohol (ethanol) and "G" for gasoline.

Geothermal plant at The Geysers, California, US

Most respondents to a climate survey conducted in 2021-2022 by the European Investment Bank say countries should back renewable energy to fight climate change.

Sunrise at the Fenton Wind Farm in Minnesota, US

The CSP-station Andasol in Andalusia, Spain

Three Gorges Dam and Gezhouba Dam, China

Shop selling PV panels in Ouagadougou, Burkina Faso

Stump harvesting increases recovery of biomass from forests

A small, roof-top mounted PV system in Bonn, Germany

The community-owned Westmill Solar Park in South East England

Komekurayama photovoltaic power station in Kofu, Japan

Krafla, a geothermal power station in Iceland

In 2021, Norway, known for its production of hydroelectricity, consumed hydro energy worth 45% of its total energy supply.

Niagara Falls

Group of three waterfalls at the southern end of Niagara Gorge, spanning the border between the province of Ontario in Canada and the state of New York in the United States.

American Falls (large waterfall center-left) and Bridal Veil Falls (right)

Niagara Escarpment (in red). Niagara Falls is center-right between Lake Ontario and Lake Erie.

Damage from wind and ice on Goat Island, 1903

American Falls diverted during erosion control efforts in 1969

Louis Hennepin is depicted in front of the falls in this 1698 print.

American Falls frozen over with people on the ice, 1911

Aerial photograph of Niagara Falls, 1931

Hand-colored lithograph of the (double-decked) Niagara Suspension Bridge, c. 1856

The Rainbow Bridge, the first bridge downstream from the falls

Ten 5,000 HP Westinghouse generators at Edward Dean Adams Power Plant

Robert Moses Niagara Power Plant in Lewiston, New York

The Welland Canal connects Lake Ontario and Lake Erie through a series of eight locks, allowing ships to bypass the 51 m high Niagara Falls

Bobby Leach and his barrel after his trip over Niagara Falls, (1911 photo)

Annie Edson Taylor posing with her wooden barrel (1901)

Charles Stephens in his barrel, prior to his fatal July 1920 attempt

Blondin carrying his manager, Harry Colcord, on a tightrope

Advertising broadside for trip to Niagara Falls from Massachusetts, 1895

Prospect Point Observation Tower (also known as the Niagara Falls Observation Tower)

Skylon Tower as seen from a helicopter on the Canadian side

The opening title from the theatrical trailer of the 1953 film Niagara.

José María Heredia y Heredia plaque at Table Rock

A General View of the Falls of Niagara by Alvan Fisher, 1820

Distant View of Niagara Falls by Thomas Cole, 1830

Niagara Fälle. Les chûtes du Niagara. Niagara Falls by Karl Bodmer, circa 1832

Voute sous la Chute du Niagara – Niagara Falls, circa 1841

Underneath Niagara Falls by Ferdinand Richardt, 1862

Niagara by Louis Rémy Mignot, circa 1866

Falls of Niagara from Below by Albert Bierstadt, 1869

Niagara Falls by William Morris Hunt, 1878

Augustus and Peter Porter purchased this area and all of American Falls in 1805 from the New York state government, and enlarged the original canal to provide hydraulic power for their gristmill and tannery.

Richard Arkwright

English inventor and a leading entrepreneur during the early Industrial Revolution.

Susannah Arkwright, Mrs Charles Hurt (1762–1835), and her daughter Mary Anne (painting by Joseph Wright of Derby)

Masson Mill on the river Derwent, and Arkwright's house Willersley Castle, completed only after his death.

Blue plaque marking the occupancy by Arkwright in Adam Street, London

He is credited as the driving force behind the development of the spinning frame, known as the water frame after it was adapted to use water power; and he patented a rotary carding engine to convert raw cotton to 'cotton lap' prior to spinning.

Air pollution

Contamination of air due to the presence of substances in the atmosphere that are harmful to the health of humans and other living beings, or cause damage to the climate or to materials.

2016 air quality indicator – light colors have lower air quality and thus higher air pollution.

Aviation is a major source of air pollution.

Controlled burning of a field outside of Statesboro, Georgia, in preparation for spring planting

Smoking of fish over an open fire in Ghana, 2018

Beijing air in 2005 after rain (left) and a smoggy day (right)

E-waste processing in Agbogbloshie, Ghana using open-burning of electronics to access valuable metals like copper. Open burning of plastics is common in many parts of the world without the capacity for processing. Especially without proper protections, heavy metals and other contaminates can seep into the soil, and create water pollution and air pollution.

Schematic drawing, causes and effects of air pollution: (1) greenhouse effect, (2) particulate contamination, (3) increased UV radiation, (4) acid rain, (5) increased ground-level ozone concentration, (6) increased levels of nitrogen oxides

Up to 30% of Europeans living in cities are exposed to air pollutant levels exceeding EU air quality standards. Around 98% of Europeans living in cities are exposed to levels of air pollutants deemed damaging to health by the World Health Organization's more stringent guidelines.

Share of deaths from indoor air pollution

Air quality monitoring, New Delhi, India

Share of deaths from outdoor air pollution, OWID

Comparison of footprint-based and transboundary pollution-based relationships among G20 nations for the number of PM2.5-related premature deaths.

Unprotected exposure to PM2.5 air pollution can be equivalent to smoking multiple cigarettes per day, potentially increasing the risk of cancer, which is mainly the result of environmental factors.

Share of the population exposed to air pollution levels above WHO guidelines, OWID

Artist's illustration of an advanced ET civilization with industrial pollution

Support for a ban on high-emission vehicles in city centres in Europe, China and the US from respondents to the European Investment Bank Climate Survey

Support, use and infrastructure-expansion of forms of public transport that do not cause air pollution may be a critical key alternative to pollution

Tarps and netting are often used to reduce the amount of dust released from construction sites.

Nitrogen dioxide concentrations as measured from satellite 2002–2004

Before flue-gas desulfurization was installed, the emissions from this power plant in New Mexico contained excessive amounts of sulfur dioxide.

Thermal oxidisers are air pollution abatement options for hazardous air pollutants (HAPs), volatile organic compounds (VOCs), and odorous emissions.

Most effective is the switch to clean power sources such as wind power, solar power, hydro power which do not cause air pollution.