A report on Mongols, Inner Mongolia and Tang dynasty

Image of a Mongolian lady (incorrectly identified as Genepil, Queen consort of Mongolia )

The empire during the reign of Wu Zetian, circa 700

Asia in 500, showing the Rouran Khaganate and its neighbors, including the Northern Wei and the Tuyuhun Khanate, all of them were established by Proto-Mongols

Persian miniature depicting Genghis Khan entering Beijing

Portrait painting of Emperor Gaozu (born Li Yuan, 566–635), the first Tang Emperor.

The Northern Yuan at its greatest extent

Empress Wu (Wu Zetian), the sole officially recognized empress regnant of China in more than two millennia. She first ruled through her husband and sons for almost three decades, then became emperor herself and ruled in her own right for another fifteen years.

Mongolia plateau during early 17th century

Inner Mongolia and Outer Mongolia within the Qing dynasty, c. 1820

The Leshan Giant Buddha, 71 m high; begun in 713, completed in 803

A portrait of Kublai Khan by Araniko (1245–1306)

Nanchan Temple (Wutai), built during the late 8th century

Delegates of Inner Mongolia People's Congress shouting slogans

The Northern Yuan dynasty and Turco-Mongol residual states and domains by the 15th century

A late Tang mural commemorating the victory of General Zhang Yichao over the Tibetans in 848 AD, from Mogao cave 156

Map showing wars between Qing Dynasty and Dzungar Khanate

Emperor Xuanzong of Tang wearing the robes and hat of a scholar

A Dzungar soldier called Ayusi from the high Qing era, by Giuseppe Castiglione, 1755

Winter in Ulanbutan Grassland, Hexigten Banner

Tang tomb figure of an official dressed in Hanfu, with a tall hat, wide-sleeved belted outer garment, and rectangular "kerchief" in front. A white inner gown hangs over his square shoes. He holds a tablet to his chest, a report to his superiors.

The Battle of Oroi-Jalatu in 1755 between the Qing (that ruled China at the time) and Mongol Dzungar armies. The fall of the Dzungar Khanate

Civil service exam candidates gather around the wall where results had been posted. Artwork by Qiu Ying.

Khorloogiin Choibalsan, leader of the Mongolian People's Republic (left), and Georgy Zhukov consult during the Battle of Khalkhin Gol against Japanese troops, 1939

Emperor Xuanzong of Tang giving audience to Zhang Guo, by Ren Renfa (1254–1327)

World War II Zaisan Memorial, Ulaan Baatar, from the People's Republic of Mongolia era.

Emperor Taizong (r. 626–649) receives Gar Tongtsen Yülsung, ambassador of the Tibetan Empire, at his court; later copy of an original painted in 641 by Yan Liben (600–673)

Mongolian President Tsakhiagiin Elbegdorj (right)

A KFC in Hohhot, the capital, with a bilingual street sign in Chinese and Mongolian

The Chinese Tang dynasty during its greatest extension, controlling large parts of Central Asia.

Chinese officer of the Guard of Honour. Tomb of Princess Chang-le (长乐公主墓), Zhao Mausoleum, Shaanxi province. Tang Zhenguan year 17, i.e. 644 CE

Chronological tree of the Mongolic languages

Temple of the White Sulde of Genghis Khan in the town of Uxin in Inner Mongolia, in the Mu Us Desert. The worship of Genghis is shared by Chinese and Mongolian folk religion.

A 10th-century mural painting in the Mogao Caves at Dunhuang showing monastic architecture from Mount Wutai, Tang dynasty; Japanese architecture of this period was influenced by Tang Chinese architecture

Sign of the Jiuquan Satellite Launch Center

Tomb figure of mounted warrior similar to the one unearthed from the tomb of Crown Prince Li Chongrun

Timur of Mongolic origin himself had converted almost all the Borjigin leaders to Islam.

Jade dragon of the Hongshan culture (4700 BC – 2900 BC) found in Ongniud, Chifeng

Tomb guardian (wushi yong), early 8th century

Mongols grazing livestock, by Roy Chapman Andrews photographs in 1921

A bas relief of a soldier and the emperor's horse, Autumn Dew, with elaborate saddle and stirrups, designed by Yan Liben, from the tomb of Emperor Taizong c. 650

Illustration of Byzantine embassy to Tang Taizong 643 CE

The Mughal Emperor Babur and his heir Humayun. The word Mughal is derived from the Persian word for Mongol.

Honorary tomb of Wang Zhaojun (born c. 50BC) in Hohhot

Tang dynasty Kai Yuan Tong Bao (開元通寳) coin, first minted in 621 in Chang'an, a model for the Japanese 8th-century Wadōkaichin

This map shows the boundary of the 13th-century Mongol Empire and location of today's Mongols in modern Mongolia, Russia and China.

Fresco from the Liao dynasty (907–1125) tomb at Baoshan, Ar Horqin

Khitan people cooking. Fresco from the Liao dynasty (907–1125) tomb at Aohan

Tomb figure of a horse with a carefully sculpted saddle, decorated with leather straps and ornamental fastenings featuring eight-petalled flowers and apricot leaves.

Strong Mongol men at August games. Photo by Wm. Purdom, 1909

Remains of the city Khara-Khoto built in 1032. Located in Ejin Khoshuu, Alxa Aimag

A contract from the Tang dynasty that records the purchase of a 15-year-old slave for six bolts of plain silk and five Chinese coins. Found in the Astana Cemetery in Turfan.

Mongol Empress Zayaat (Jiyatu), wife of Kulug Khan (1281–1311)

Maidari Juu temple fortress ({{zh|labels=no |c=美岱召 |p=měidài zhào}}) built by Altan Khan in 1575 near Baotou

Tomb Figure of a Sogdian merchant, 7th-century

Genghis' son Tolui with Queen Sorgaqtani

Newly built arch in front of the Maidari Juu temple fortress (1575)

A mural depicting a corner tower, most likely one of Chang'an, from the tomb of Prince Yide (d. 701) at the Qianling Mausoleum, dated 706

Da Zhao temple (also called Ikh Zuu) built by Altan Khan in 1579

Badekar Monastery (1749) near Baotou, Inner Mongolia. Called Badgar Zuu in Mongolian

The bronze Jingyun Bell cast 711, height 247 cm high, weight 6,500 kg, now in the Xi'an Bell Tower

Mongol soldiers by Rashid al-Din, BnF. MS. Supplément Persan 1113. 1430-1434 AD.

A Tang dynasty era copy of the preface to the Lantingji Xu poems composed at the Orchid Pavilion Gathering, originally attributed to Wang Xizhi (303–361 AD) of the Jin dynasty

Kalmyk Mongol girl Annushka (painted in 1767)

Badain Jaran temple (1868) in western Inner Mongolia

A poem by Li Bai (701–762 AD), the only surviving example of Li Bai's calligraphy, housed in the Palace Museum in Beijing.

Calligraphy of Emperor Taizong on a Tang stele

A Tang dynasty sculpture of a Bodhisattva

Dolgorsürengiin Dagvadorj became the first Mongol to reach sumo's highest rank.

An 8th-century silk wall scroll from Dunhuang, showing the paradise of Amitabha

Mongol women archers during Naadam festival

Alxa Western Monastery (Alshaa Baruun Hiid) built in 1756

A timber hall built in 857, located at the Buddhist Foguang Temple of Mount Wutai, Shanxi

A Tang sancai-glazed carved relief showing horseback riders playing polo

A late Tang or early Five Dynasties era silk painting on a banner depicting Guanyin and a female attendant in silk robes, from the Dunhuang caves, now in the British Museum

Palace ladies in a garden from a mural of Prince Li Xian's tomb in the Qianling Mausoleum, where Wu Zetian was also buried in 706

Tang era gilt-gold bowl with lotus and animal motifs

A Tang sancai-glazed lobed dish with incised decorations, 8th century

Tomb figure of a lady attendant, 7th- to 8th-century; during the Tang era, female hosts prepared feasts, tea parties, and played drinking games with their guests.

Daur Mongol Empress Wanrong (1906–1946), also had Borjigin blood on maternal side.

A rounded "offering plate" with design in "three colors" (sancai) glaze, 8th-century

A square bronze mirror with a phoenix motif of gold and silver inlaid with lacquer, 8th-century

The Diamond Sutra, printed in 868, is the world's first widely printed book to include a specific date of printing.

The Dunhuang map, a star map showing the North Polar region. c. 700. The whole set of star maps contains over 1,300 stars.

"Great Tang" (Dà Táng) in seal characters.

A Tang Dynasty sancai statuette of Sogdian musicians riding on a Bactrian camel, 723 AD, Xi'an.

The Mongols (Монголчууд,, Moŋğolçuud, ; ; Монголы) are an East Asian ethnic group native to Mongolia, Inner Mongolia in China and the Buryatia Republic of the Russian Federation.

- Mongols

The designation "Mongol" briefly appeared in 8th century records of Tang China to describe a tribe of Shiwei.

- Mongols

The Sui dynasty (581–618) and Tang dynasty (618–907) re-established a unified Chinese empire and like their predecessors, they conquered and settled people into Hetao, though once again these efforts were aborted when the Tang empire began to collapse.

- Inner Mongolia

After Genghis Khan unified the Mongol tribes in 1206 and founded the Mongol Empire, the Tangut Western Xia empire was ultimately conquered in 1227, and the Jurchen Jin dynasty fell in 1234.

- Inner Mongolia

With the breakdown of the land allocation system after 755, the central Chinese state barely interfered in agricultural management and acted merely as tax collector for roughly a millennium, save a few instances such as the Song's failed land nationalization during the 13th-century war with the Mongols.

- Tang dynasty

In the year 630, Tang armies captured areas of the Ordos Desert, modern-day Inner Mongolia province, and southern Mongolia from the Turks.

- Tang dynasty

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Mongolia

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Landlocked country in East Asia, bordered by Russia to the north and China to the south.

7th-century artifacts found 180 km from Ulaanbaatar.

Mongol Empire expansion (1206 till 1294)

This map shows the boundary of the 13th-century Mongol Empire compared to today's Mongols. The red area shows where the majority of Mongolian speakers reside today.

Altan Khan (1507–1582) founded the city of Hohhot, helped introduce Buddhism and originated the title of Dalai Lama

The eighth Jebtsundamba Khutuktu, Bogd Khaan

Khorloogiin Choibalsan led Mongolia during the Stalinist era and presided over an environment of intense political persecution

Mongolian troops fight against the Japanese counterattack at Khalkhin Gol, 1939

Mongolian Premier Yumjaagiin Tsedenbal was the longest-serving leader in the Soviet Bloc, with over 44 years in office

The southern portion of Mongolia is taken up by the Gobi Desert, while the northern and western portions are mountainous.

Mongolia map of Köppen climate classification zones.

The Khentii Mountains in Terelj, close to the birthplace of Genghis Khan.

Bactrian camels by sand dunes in Gobi Desert.

Ulaanbaatar is the capital and largest city of Mongolia

In settlements, many families live in ger districts

Mongolia's President Tsakhia Elbegdorj with U.S. Secretary of State John Kerry, June 2016

Mongolia's President Khaltmaagiin Battulga and Vladimir Putin in Vladivostok, September 2017

Mongolian, Chinese and Russian national flags set on armored vehicles during the large-scale military exercise Vostok 2018 in Eastern Siberia

Historical development of real GDP per capita in Mongolia

A proportional representation of Mongolia exports, 2019

View of Ulaanbaatar with the Blue Sky Tower

Oyu Tolgoi employs 18,000 workers and expects to be producing 450,000 tonnes of copper a year by 2020

Train in Zamyn-Üüd station in Dornogovi aimag

While the Mongolian horse continues to be revered as the national symbol, they are rapidly being replaced by motorized vehicles.

Mongolian ferry Sukhbaatar on Lake Khovsgol in Khovsgol Province

A ger in front of the Gurvan Saikhan Mountains

Musician playing the traditional Mongolian musical instrument morin khuur

Mongolian media interviewing the opposition Mongolian Green Party in 2008. The media has gained significant freedoms since democratic reforms initiated in the 1990s.

Naadam is the largest summer celebration.

After the collapse of the Yuan, the Mongols retreated to Mongolia and resumed their earlier pattern of factional conflict, except during the era of Dayan Khan and Tumen Zasagt Khan.

First attested as the 'Mungu', (Chinese:, Modern Chinese Měngwù, Middle Chinese Muwngu ), a branch of the Shiwei in an 8th-century Tang dynasty list of northern tribes, presumably related to the Liao-era Mungku (Chinese: , Modern Chinese Měnggǔ, Middle Chinese MuwngkuX ).

By 1636 most Inner Mongolian tribes had submitted to the Manchus, who founded the Qing dynasty.

Khitan people

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Area corresponding to parts of modern Mongolia, Northeast China and the Russian Far East.

Khitan Chinese painting by Chen Juzhong (fl. 1195-1224)

Liao dynasty tomb relief of Khitans and their baggage cart

Khitan falconers in a painting by Chen Juzhong, early 13th c.

The Qara Khitai empire in 1169 at its greatest extent

Khitan inscription dated 1058 (清寧四年) found in Dornogovi. Written in Khitan large script.

The Pagoda of Fogong Temple, built in 1056.

Khitans holding wrapped up banners, maces, and drums

The man came from the Tu River (Lao Ha river in modern-day Jilin, Manchuria) and the woman from the Huang River (modern day Xar Moron river in Inner Mongolia).

Between the 6th and 9th centuries, they were successively dominated by the Eastern Turkic Khaganate, the Uyghur Khaganate, and the Chinese Tang dynasty.

Fleeing from the Mongols, in 1216 the Khitans invaded Goryeo and defeated the Goryeo armies several times, even reaching the gates of the capital and raiding deep into the south, but were defeated by Goryeo General Kim Chwi-ryeo who pushed them back north to Pyongan, where the remaining Khitans were finished off by allied Mongol-Goryeo forces in 1219.

Xiongnu

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The Xiongnu were a tribal confederation of nomadic peoples who, according to ancient Chinese sources, inhabited the eastern Eurasian Steppe from the 3rd century BC to the late 1st century AD. Chinese sources report that Modu Chanyu, the supreme leader after 209 BC, founded the Xiongnu Empire.

Asia in 200 BC, showing the early Xiongnu state and its neighbors

Plaque in the shape of a grazing kulan (wild ass), 2nd–1st century BC, Northwest China, Xiongnu culture.

A traveling nomad family led by a man in belted jacket and trousers, pulling a nomadic cart. Belt Buckle, Mongolia or southern Siberia, dated to 2nd-1st century BC (Xiongnu period).

Xiongnu among other people in Asia around 1 AD.

Bronze seal of a Xiongnu chief, conferred by the Eastern Han government. Inscribed 漢匈奴/歸義親/漢長 ("The Chief of the Han Xiongnu, who have returned to righteousness and embraced the Han"). Seal, impression, and transcription in standard characters.

Belt hook depicting an animal fight, Xiongnu, 200-100 BC, bronze. Östasiatiska museet, Stockholm.

Southern and Northern Xiongnu in 200 AD, before the collapse of the Han Dynasty.

Location of Xiongnu and other steppe nations in 300 AD.

An embroidered rug from the Xiongnu Noin-Ula burial site. This luxury item was imported from Bactria, and is thought to represent Yuezhi figures.

Belt plaque in the shape of a kneeling horse, 3rd-1st century BCE, gilded silver, made in North China for Xiongnu patrons.

Belt Buckle, 2nd-1st century BCE, Xiongnu. Another naturalistic belt buckle made to the Xiongnu taste, showing a mounted warrior frontally, holding a dagger and grabbing the hair of a demon who is also attacked by a dog. Also appears a nomadic cart pulled by reindeers, and another dog on top of the cart.

Xiongnu Leather Robe, Han period, Henan Provincial Museum, Zhengzhou

Belt plaque with design of wrestling men, Ordos region and western part of North China, 2nd century BC, bronze - Ethnological Museum, Berlin.

Belt buckle with three Ibexes, 2nd-1st century BC, Xiongnu. Chinese foundries made bronze belt plaques to the taste of the Xiongnu, who preferred designs of real animals in naturalistic settings. These plaques have typically been excavated in Xiongnu tombs of the 1st century BC.

Belt buckle with animal combat scene, 2nd-1st century BCE, made in North China for the Xiongnu. These plates were inspired by the art of the steppes, but the design was flattened and compressed within the frame.

Belt Buckle with nomadic-inspired zoomorphic design, manufactured in China for the Xiongnu. Mercury-gilded bronze (a Chinese technique). North China, 3rd-2nd century BC.

2nd century BC – 2nd century AD characters of Xiongnu-Xianbei script (Mongolia and Inner Mongolia).{{sfn|Ishjamts|1996|p=166, Fig 5}}

"Pastoralist expansion into Mongolia ca. 3000 BCE, and by the Late Bronze Age, Mongolian populations were biogeographically structured into three distinct groups, all practicing dairy pastoralism regardless of ancestry. The Xiongnu emerged from the mixing of these populations and those from surrounding regions".

Uniparental haplogroup assignments by group and sex-bias "z" scores of Xiongnu.

The Xiongnu were also active in areas now part of Siberia, Inner Mongolia, Gansu and Xinjiang.

Following his death, the power of the Xiongnu in the Western Regions increased again, and the emperors of subsequent dynasties did not reach as far west until the Tang dynasty.

Mongolian archaeologists proposed that the Slab Grave Culture people were the ancestors of the Xiongnu, and some scholars have suggested that the Xiongnu may have been the ancestors of the Mongols.

Xianbei

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Figure of a Xianbei warrior from the Northern Dynasties (286–581 AD) era. The figure wear a covered "wind hat", trousers, short upper tunic and a cape tied around the neck, designed to protect against the wind and dust.

Xianbei musician, tomb of Sima Jinlong, 484 CE.

Painting of the Tuoba-Xianbei Northern Zhou general Li Xian (504-569 CE).

The Xianbei were a Proto-Mongolic ancient nomadic people that once resided in the eastern Eurasian steppes in what is today Mongolia, Inner Mongolia, and Northeastern China.

These states opposed and promoted sinicization at one point or another but trended towards the latter and had merged with the general Chinese population by the Tang dynasty.

Through these political establishments, the Xianbei who entered China were largely merged with the Chinese, examples such as the wife of Emperor Gaozu of Tang, Duchess Dou and Emperor Taizong of Tang's wife, Empress Zhangsun, both have Xianbei ancestries, while those who remained behind in the northern grassland emerged as later powers to rule over China as Mongol Yuan dynasty and Manchu Qing dynasty.

Manchuria

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Deprecated in the People's Republic China after 1949 due to its association with Manchurian nationalism and the breakaway of Manchukuo.

One of the earliest European maps using the term "Manchuria" (Mandchouria) (John Tallis, 1851). Previously, the term "Chinese Tartary" had been commonly applied in the West to Manchuria and Mongolia

Climate map of Manchuria or Northeast China.

Hailang River near Hailin City in Heilongjiang

A 12th-century Jurchen stone tortoise in today's Ussuriysk

The Three Kingdoms of Korea occupied roughly half of Manchuria, 5th century AD

The Mongol Yuan province of Liaoyang included northern Korea

Manchuria is the homeland of the Jurchens who became the Manchus.

A Jurchen man hunting from his horse, from a 15th-century ink-and-color painting on silk

The Manchu-led Qing dynasty circa 1820. Later Jin area in purple line

Map showing the original border (in pink) between Manchuria and Russia according to the Treaty of Nerchinsk 1689, and subsequent losses of territory to Russia in the treaties of Aigun 1858 (beige) and Peking 1860 (red)

Harbin's Kitayskaya Street (Russian for "Chinese Street"), now Zhongyang Street (Chinese for "Central Street"), before 1945

Map of the three provinces of Northeast China (1911) {{sfnp|EB|1911}}

Map of Manchukuo and its rail network, c.{{nbsp}}1945

Map with the historic extent of Manchuria. Inner Manchuria lies in Northeast China, colored in red. Outer Manchuria to the north and the part today in Inner Mongolia to the west are in lighter red.

The area is also home to many Mongols and Hui.

(most often) Northeast China, specifically the three provinces of Heilongjiang, Jilin, and Liaoning, but broadly also including the eastern Inner Mongolian prefectures of Hulunbuir, Hinggan, Tongliao, and Chifeng, and sometimes Xilin Gol;

The Han dynasty (202 BCE to 9 CE and 25 to 220 CE), the Cao Wei dynasty (220–266), the Western Jin dynasty (266–316), the Tang dynasty (618–690 and 705–907) and some other minor kingdoms of China established control in parts of Manchuria and in some cases tributary relations with peoples in the area.

Yuan dynasty

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Kublai Khan, founder of the Yuan dynasty

Guan Daosheng "the most famous and talented female painter and calligrapher in Chinese history" flourished in the Yuan dynasty

The Bailin Temple Pagoda of Zhaoxian County, Hebei Province, built in 1330 during the Yuan dynasty

A Yuan dynasty blue-and-white porcelain dish with fish and flowing water design, mid-14th century, Freer Gallery of Art

Yuan underglaze blue Jingdezhen porcelain plate

A plate made of lacquer, wood, and paper from the Yuan dynasty. The Chinese were able to perfect a method of making lacquer. Decorating this plate are parrots and peonies. The parrot was a symbol of fidelity; because of its ability to mimic human speech, it was believed to be a suitable companion to a woman whose husband was away from home. The bird would be able to inform each person of the other's activities. The peony was a symbol of female virtue. When shown in full bloom, it is a token of love, affection, and feminine beauty. Birmingham Museum of Art.

The Yuan dynasty arched bridges of Taicang were built to show the prosperity the city enjoyed under the Yuan.

A diagram of Pascal's triangle in Zhu Shijie's Jade Mirror of the Four Unknowns, written in 1303

Yuan dynasty banknote with its printing plate, 1287

A revolving typecase with individual movable type characters from Wang Zhen's Nong Shu, published in 1313

Blue-and-white Covered Jar with Fretwork Floral Design in Red and Blue Glaze, excavated in Baoding

Painting of Kublai Khan on a hunting expedition, by Chinese court artist Liu Guandao, c. 1280

Wine jar with fish and aquatic plants, 14th century. Porcelain with underglaze cobalt blue decoration. Brooklyn Museum.

Manichaean Diagram of the Universe, a painting describing Yuan period Manichaean cosmology

A Yuan Qingbai porcelain statue of Guanyin, a bodhisattva of Mahayana Buddhism

Box with pavilion and figures, Yuan dynasty.

Covered box with lunar palace, 14th century. Yuan dynasty.

Jinan Great Southern Mosque was completed during the reign of Temür Khan (the Emperor Chengzong of Yuan).

Administrative divisions of the Yuan dynasty.

Magic square in Arabic numerals (Yuan dynasty)

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Yuan painting of a legendary figure riding on a dragon.

Genghis Khan's grandson, Kublai Khan during his youth

Chinese stone inscription of a Nestorian Christian Cross from a monastery of Fangshan District in Beijing (then called Dadu, or Khanbaliq), dated to the Yuan Dynasty

The Yuan dynasty, officially the Great Yuan (, Yeke Yuwan Ulus, literally "Great Yuan State"), was a successor state to the Mongol Empire after its division and a conquest dynasty of imperial China established by Kublai (Emperor Shizu), leader of the Mongol Borjigin clan, lasting from 1271 to 1368.

In the edict titled Proclamation of the Dynastic Name, Kublai announced the name of the new dynasty as Great Yuan and claimed the succession of former Chinese dynasties from the Three Sovereigns and Five Emperors to the Tang dynasty.

He adopted as his capital city Kaiping in Inner Mongolia, later renamed Shangdu.