A report on Kublai Khan and Majapahit

Portrait by artist Araniko, sling drawn shortly after Kublai's death in 1294. His white robes reflect his desired symbolic role as a religious Mongol shaman.

Portrait of young Kublai by Araniko, a Nepali artist in Kublai's court

The greatest extent of Majapahit influence based on the Nagarakretagama in 1365

“The Emperor Kublai Khan in a tower carried by four elephants on the day of the battle“ French Engraving, 18th century.

A maja fruit growing near Trowulan. The bitter-tasting fruit is the origin of the kingdom's name

Kublai Khan was chosen by his many supporters to become the next Great Khan at the Grand Kurultai in the year 1260.
Kublai Khan and His Empress Enthroned, from a Jami al-Twarikh (or Chingiznama). Mughal dynasty, Reign of Akbar, 1596. Mughal Court. Opaque watercolor, ink, and gold on paper. India. Freer Gallery of Art. F1954.31

Nagarakretagama palm-leaf manuscript. Composed by Mpu Prapanca in 1365, it provides a primary historical account of Majapahit court during the reign of King Hayam Wuruk.

Painting of Kublai Khan on a hunting expedition, by Han Chinese court artist Liu Guandao, c. 1280.

Painting of a 14th-century Yuan junk. Similar ships were sent by the Yuan in their naval armada.

Extract of the letter of Arghun to Philip IV of France, in the Mongolian script, dated 1289. French National Archives.

King Kertarajasa portrayed as Harihara, amalgamation of Shiva and Vishnu. Originally located at Candi Simping, Blitar, today it is displayed in National Museum.

Golden image of a mounted rider, possibly the Hindu god Surya, within a stylised solar halo. Below is a conch flanked by two nagas. 14th-century Majapahit art, National Museum Jakarta.

Chinese opera flourished during Yuan China.

The statue of Parvati as mortuary deified portrayal of Tribhuwanottunggadewi, queen of Majapahit, mother of Hayam Wuruk.

The "Muslim trebuchet" (or Huihui Pao) used to breach the walls of Fancheng and Xiangyang.

Rough estimations of Majapahit's conquest of the Indonesian archipelago (Nusantara) in the 13th century, its decline and its eventual fall in the early 16th century to Demak Sultanate. The existing historical records from several sources only partially describe the years listed and thus are subject to revisions.

The terracotta figure popularly believed by Mohammad Yamin as the portrait of Gajah Mada, collection of Trowulan Museum. His claim, however, is not backed by historical background.

Two dragons chasing a flaming pearl was a symbol associated with Goryeo.

Gajah Mada inscription, dated 1273 Saka (1351 CE), mentioned about a sacred caitya building dedicated by Gajah Mada for the late King Kertanegara of Singhasari.

The Gangnido reflects the Chinese geographical knowledge during the Mongol Empire about countries in the West.

Bronze cannon, called cetbang, Metropolitan Museum of Art, New York, from c. 1470–1478 Majapahit. Note the Surya Majapahit emblem on the bronze cannon.

The Japanese samurai Suenaga facing Mongol arrows and bombs. Mōko Shūrai Ekotoba (蒙古襲来絵詞), circa 1293.

The route of the voyages of Zheng He's fleet, including Majapahit ports.

Japanese samurai boarding Yuan ships in 1281.

The mortuary deified portrait statue of Queen Suhita (reign 1429–1447), discovered at Jebuk, Kalangbret, Tulungagung, East Java, National Museum of Indonesia.

Kublai gives financial support to the Polo family.

Demak was the earliest Islamic polity in Java that replaced Majapahit.

Rabban Bar Sauma, ambassador of Great Khan Kublai and Ilkhan Arghun, travelled from Dadu to Rome, Tuscany, Genoa, Paris, and Bordeaux to meet with European rulers in 1287–88.

Wringin Lawang, the 15.5-meter tall red brick split gate in Trowulan, believed to be the entrance of an important compound.

The White Stupa of Dadu (or Khanbaliq; now Beijing).

The king of Java and his 7 vassal kings, as imagined in a 15th century British manuscript contained in Friar Odoric's account.

A Yuan dynasty jade belt plaque featuring carved designs of the Azure Dragon, highly regarded as a symbol of Yuan China's maritime strength.

The graceful Bidadari Majapahit, golden celestial apsara in Majapahit style perfectly describes Majapahit as "the golden age" of the archipelago.

In Ilkhanate Persia, Ghazan converted to Islam and recognized Kublai Khan as his suzerain.

Gold figure from the Majapahit period representing Sutasoma being borne by the man-eater Kalmasapada.

Chabi, Khatun of Kublai and Empress of the Mongol Empire

Palm leaf manuscript of Kakawin Sutasoma, a 14th-century Javanese poem.

Longevity Hill in Beijing, where Kublai Khan wrote his poem.

Bas reliefs of Tegowangi temple, dated from Majapahit period, demonstrate the East Javanese style.

Laborers transporting construction materials to Khanbaliq

Pair of door guardians from a temple, Eastern Java, 14th century, Museum of Asian Art, San Francisco.

Statue of Kublai Khan in Sükhbaatar Square, Ulaanbaatar. Together with Ögedei Khan's, and the much larger Genghis Khan's statues, it forms a statue complex dedicated to the Mongol Empire.

Jabung temple near Paiton, Probolinggo, East Java, dated from Majapahit period.

The 16.5-metre tall Bajang Ratu Paduraksa gate, at Trowulan, echoed the grandeur of Majapahit.

The stepped terraces, pavilions, and split gates of Cetho temple complex on mount Lawu slopes.

Majapahit terracotta piggy bank, 14th or 15th century Trowulan, East Java. (Collection of National Museum of Indonesia, Jakarta)

Ancient red-brick canal discovered in Trowulan. Majapahit had a well-developed irrigation infrastructure.

Majapahit core realm and provinces (Mancanagara) in eastern and central parts of Java, including islands of Madura and Bali.

The extent of Majapahit's influence under Hayam Wuruk in 1365 according to Nagarakretagama.

A 1.79 kilogram, 21-karat Majapahit period gold image discovered in Agusan, Philippines, copied Nganjuk bronze images of the early Majapahit period, signify Majapahit cultural influence on southern Philippines.

14th-century gold armlets and rings in East Javanese Majapahit style, found at Fort Canning Hill, Singapore, suggests that Tumasik or Singapura was within Majapahit sphere of influence.

Adityawarman, a senior minister of Majapahit depicted as Bhairava. He established the Pagaruyung Kingdom in Central Sumatra.

On centre bottom row (no. 8) is a Yǒng-Lè Tōng-Bǎo (永樂通寶) cash coin cast under the Yǒng-Lè Emperor (永樂帝) of Ming dynasty. These were cast in great quantities and used by Ashikaga, Ryukyu, as well as Majapahit.

Pura Maospahit ("Majapahit Temple") in Denpasar, Bali, demonstrate the typical Majapahit red brick architecture.

The Majapahit style minaret of Kudus Mosque.

Bas relief from Candi Penataran describes the Javanese-style pendopo pavilion, commonly found across Java and Bali.

The Kris of Knaud, one of the oldest surviving kris is dated to Majapahit period

The high reliefs of Gajah Mada and Majapahit history depicted in Monas, has become the source of Indonesian national pride of past greatness.

Gajah Mada statue in front of Telecommunication Museum in Taman Mini Indonesia Indah, Jakarta. Palapa, Indonesia's first telecommunication satellite launched on 9 July 1976 was named after Palapa oath.

Genealogy diagram of Rajasa dynasty, the royal family of Singhasari and Majapahit. Rulers are highlighted with period of reign.

Theatrical performance depicting the Mongol invasion of Java, performed by 150 students of Indonesian Institute of the Arts, Yogyakarta. The history of Majapahit continues to inspire contemporary artists.

Cropped portion of China Sea in the Miller atlas, showing six and three-masted jong.

Armor depicted in a statue from a candi in Singasari.

This Jiaozhi arquebus is similar to Java arquebus.

Deity holding a cuirass, from earlier, 10-11th century Nganjuk, East Java.

Kublai Khan, the Khagan of the Mongol Empire and the Emperor of the Mongol-led Yuan dynasty of China, challenged Singhasari by sending emissaries demanding tribute.

- Majapahit

During the last years of his reign, Kublai launched a naval punitive expedition of 20–30,000 men against Singhasari on Java (1293), but the invading Mongol forces were forced to withdraw by Majapahit after considerable losses of more than 3000 troops.

- Kublai Khan

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Kublai Khan's fleet passing through the Indonesian archipelago, by Sir Henry Yule (1871)

Mongol invasion of Java

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19th-century studio portrait of a native Javanese warrior with an iron kris-tipped spear (a tombak). The Javanese forces consisted mostly of lightly armored troops like this.

Painting of a 14th-century Yuan junk. Yuan naval armada consisted of this kind of ships.

21st century view of Brantas river in Kediri.

3-masted Javanese jong in Banten, this illustration is from 1610.

The Yuan dynasty under Kublai Khan attempted in 1292 to invade Java, an island in modern Indonesia, with 20,000 to 30,000 soldiers.

After a fierce campaign, Kediri surrendered, but the Yuan forces were betrayed by their erstwhile ally, Majapahit, under Raden Wijaya.

Champa

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Comtemporary central and southern Vietnam from approximately the 2nd century AD until 1832, when it was annexed by the Vietnamese Empire under its emperor Minh Mạng.

This Cham head of Shiva was made of electrum around 800. It decorated a kosa, or metal sleeve fitted to a liṅgam. One can recognise Shiva by the tall chignon hairstyle and by the third eye in the middle of his forehead.

Crown of Champa in 7th and 8th century. (Museum of Vietnamese History)

Epigraph of king Jaya Paramesvaravarman II (r. 1220–1254), the liberator of Champa from Khmer rule.

Depiction of a couple of highland man and Cham lady in the Boxer Codex from 1590

Supposedly zenith of Champa territorial expansion during the reign of Che Bong Nga (r. 1360-1390)

1801 map of Southeast Asia by John Cary showing Panduranga Champa (Tsiompa)

11th-century sculpture depicting the court of Champa with king, court officials, and servants. Museum of Cham Sculpture.

Champa (ca. 11th century) at its greatest extent

Closeup of the inscription in Cham script on the Po Nagar stele, 965. The stele describes feats by the Champa kings.

9th-century Dong Duong (Indrapura) sculpture describes the early life of Prince Siddhārtha Gautama (who is sitting on a mule).

Mỹ Sơn is the site of the largest collection of Cham ruins.

Champa ladies dance at Poklong Garai stupa in Phan Rang.

A Vietnamese Shiva figure made by sandstone in Vong La temple, Hanoi, dated 12th century

Sculpture of Cham mounted archers on chariots. {{circa}} 11th–13th century.

Depiction of a Cham–Khmer naval battle, stone relief at the Bayon.

12th-century Champa marines wore various types of armor.

Bas reliefs from the Bayon Temple depicting battle scene between Cham (wearing helmets) and Khmer troops

Remain of My Son E1 temples which was constructed by King Prakāśadharma (r. 653–687). The complex barely survived the Vietnam War.

Đồng Dương (Indrapura) Buddha statue, 9th century AD. Museum of Vietnamese History

Phu Loc tower, a Cham kalan archetype, Binh Dinh, constructed in late 13th century. A remain of Vijaya.

Bas relief of animals and beasties from Tra Kieu, c. 900-1100. Museum of Cham Sculpture.

Champa also had close trade and cultural relations with the powerful maritime empire of Srivijaya and later with the Majapahit of the Malay Archipelago, its easternmost trade relations being with the kingdoms of Butuan and Sulu in the Philippines.

Before the invasion, Qubilai Khan ordered the establishment of a mobile secretariat (xingsheng) in Champa for the purpose of dominating the South China Sea and the Indian Ocean trade networks.

Singhasari

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Javanese Hindu kingdom located in east Java between 1222 and 1292.

A mandala of Amoghapāśa from the Singhasari period

The serene beauty of Prajnaparamita statue found near Singhasari temple is believed to be the portrayal statue of Queen Ken Dedes, wife of Ken Arok (the collection of National Museum of Indonesia).

Singhasari temple built as a mortuary temple to honour Kertanegara, the last king of Singhasari.

The land of Singhasari when at its peak during 1291

He is considered the founder of the Rajasa dynasty of both the Singhasari and later the Majapahit line of monarchs.

As the centre of the Malayan peninsula trade winds, the rising power, influence, and wealth of the Javanese Singhasari empire came to the attention of Kublai Khan of the Mongol Yuan dynasty based in China.

Khmer Empire

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Term used by historians to refer to Cambodia from the 9th to the 15th centuries, when the nation was a Hindu-Buddhist empire in Southeast Asia.

The pyramid of Koh Ker. Koh Ker was briefly the capital of the Khmer Empire

The Khmer Empire at its height of territorial expansion in 1203 CE after the conquest of Champa

11th-century Cambodian sculpture of the Buddha

A satellite image of Angkor, the dried East Baray suggests the environmental changes in the region

Reconstruction of Prasat Bayon, the center of Angkor Thom.

A bas-relief depicting Khmer naval soldiers using bow and arrows. Located at the Bayon(12th/13th century)

Helmets, weapons and armory of the Khmer Empire's military as depicted at Angkor Wat. Depicted from French explorer Henri Mouhot's book.

A bas-relief depicting people playing a chess-like game

The Khmer Empire's bridge of Spean Praptos, a corbel bridge in Siem Reap Province, Cambodia.

Phimai, the site of an ancient Khmer city of Vimayapura

Khmer soldier on the left fights against his Cham rival on the right. The Cham of Champa were the main rivals of the Khmer Empire. At the bas-reliefs in the Bayon temple, the Cham are always seen wearing helmets in the shape of Magnolia champaca flower.

From the outside, the empire was threatened in 1283 by the Mongols under Kublai Khan's general Sogetu (sometimes known as Sagatu or Sodu), who was the governor of Guangzhou, China.

A Javanese source, the Nagarakretagama canto 15, composed in 1365 in the Majapahit Empire, claimed Java had established diplomatic relations with Kambuja (Cambodia) together with Syangkayodhyapura (Ayutthaya), Dharmmanagari (Negara Sri Dharmaraja), Rajapura (Ratchaburi) and Singhanagari (Songkla), Marutma (Martaban or Mottama, Southern Myanmar), Champa and Yawana (Annam).