A report on Lithium

Lithium ingots with a thin layer of black nitride tarnish

Lithium is about as common as chlorine in the Earth's upper continental crust, on a per-atom basis.

Nova Centauri 2013 is the first in which evidence of lithium has been found.

Johan August Arfwedson is credited with the discovery of lithium in 1817

Hexameric structure of the n-butyllithium fragment in a crystal

Scatter plots of lithium grade and tonnage for selected world deposits, as of 2017

Lithium use in flares and pyrotechnics is due to its rose-red flame.

The launch of a torpedo using lithium as fuel

Lithium deuteride was used as fuel in the Castle Bravo nuclear device.

Chemical element with the symbol Li and atomic number 3.

- Lithium

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Chemical element

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Species of atoms that have a given number of protons in their nuclei, including the pure substance consisting only of that species.

$Estimated distribution of dark matter and dark energy in the universe. Only the fraction of the mass and energy in the universe labeled "atoms" is composed of chemical elements.$

Periodic table showing the cosmogenic origin of each element in the Big Bang, or in large or small stars. Small stars can produce certain elements up to sulfur, by the alpha process. Supernovae are needed to produce "heavy" elements (those beyond iron and nickel) rapidly by neutron buildup, in the r-process. Certain large stars slowly produce other elements heavier than iron, in the s-process; these may then be blown into space in the off-gassing of planetary nebulae

Abundances of the chemical elements in the Solar System. Hydrogen and helium are most common, from the Big Bang. The next three elements (Li, Be, B) are rare because they are poorly synthesized in the Big Bang and also in stars. The two general trends in the remaining stellar-produced elements are: (1) an alternation of abundance in elements as they have even or odd atomic numbers (the Oddo-Harkins rule), and (2) a general decrease in abundance as elements become heavier. Iron is especially common because it represents the minimum energy nuclide that can be made by fusion of helium in supernovae.

Mendeleev's 1869 periodic table: An experiment on a system of elements. Based on their atomic weights and chemical similarities.

The lightest chemical elements are hydrogen and helium, both created by Big Bang nucleosynthesis during the first 20 minutes of the universe in a ratio of around 3:1 by mass (or 12:1 by number of atoms), along with tiny traces of the next two elements, lithium and beryllium.

Petalite, the lithium mineral from which lithium was first isolated

Alkali metal

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Johann Wolfgang Döbereiner was among the first to notice similarities between what are now known as the alkali metals.

Lepidolite, the rubidium mineral from which rubidium was first isolated

Dmitri Mendeleev's periodic system proposed in 1871 showing hydrogen and the alkali metals as part of his group I, along with copper, silver, and gold

Estimated abundances of the chemical elements in the Solar system. Hydrogen and helium are most common, from the Big Bang. The next three elements (lithium, beryllium, and boron) are rare because they are poorly synthesised in the Big Bang and also in stars. The two general trends in the remaining stellar-produced elements are: (1) an alternation of abundance in elements as they have even or odd atomic numbers, and (2) a general decrease in abundance, as elements become heavier. Iron is especially common because it represents the minimum energy nuclide that can be made by fusion of helium in supernovae.

Effective nuclear charge on an atomic electron

Periodic trend for ionisation energy: each period begins at a minimum for the alkali metals, and ends at a maximum for the noble gases. Predicted values are used for elements beyond 104.

The variation of Pauling electronegativity (y-axis) as one descends the main groups of the periodic table from the second to the sixth period

A reaction of 3 pounds (≈ 1.4 kg) of sodium with water

Unit cell ball-and-stick model of lithium nitride. On the basis of size a tetrahedral structure would be expected, but that would be geometrically impossible: thus lithium nitride takes on this unique crystal structure.

Structure of the octahedral n-butyllithium hexamer, (C4H9Li)6. The aggregates are held together by delocalised covalent bonds between lithium and the terminal carbon of the butyl chain. There is no direct lithium–lithium bonding in any organolithium compound.

Solid phenyllithium forms monoclinic crystals can be described as consisting of dimeric Li2(C6H5)2 subunits. The lithium atoms and the ipso carbons of the phenyl rings form a planar four-membered ring. The plane of the phenyl groups are perpendicular to the plane of this Li2C2 ring. Additional strong intermolecular bonding occurs between these phenyllithium dimers and the π electrons of the phenyl groups in the adjacent dimers, resulting in an infinite polymeric ladder structure.

Reduction reactions using sodium in liquid ammonia

Empirical (Na–Cs, Mg–Ra) and predicted (Fr–Uhp, Ubn–Uhh) atomic radius of the alkali and alkaline earth metals from the third to the ninth period, measured in angstroms

Empirical (Na–Fr) and predicted (Uue) electron affinity of the alkali metals from the third to the eighth period, measured in electron volts

Empirical (Na–Fr, Mg–Ra) and predicted (Uue–Uhp, Ubn–Uhh) ionisation energy of the alkali and alkaline earth metals from the third to the ninth period, measured in electron volts

Similarly to the alkali metals, ammonia reacts with hydrochloric acid to form the salt ammonium chloride.

Very pure thallium pieces in a glass ampoule, stored under argon gas

This sample of uraninite contains about 100,000 atoms (3.3 g) of francium-223 at any given time.

FOCS 1, a caesium atomic clock in Switzerland

A wheel type radiotherapy device which has a long collimator to focus the radiation into a narrow beam. The caesium-137 chloride radioactive source is the blue square, and gamma rays are represented by the beam emerging from the aperture. This was the radiation source involved in the Goiânia accident, containing about 93 grams of caesium-137 chloride.

The alkali metals consist of the chemical elements lithium (Li), sodium (Na), potassium (K), rubidium (Rb), caesium (Cs), and francium (Fr).

A 3.6v Li-ion battery from a Nokia 3310 mobile phone

Lithium-ion battery

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Cylindrical Panasonic 18650 lithium-ion cell before closing.

Lithium-ion battery monitoring electronics (over-charge and deep-discharge protection)

An 18650 size lithium ion cell, with an alkaline AA for scale. 18650 are used for example in notebooks or EVs

A lithium-ion battery from a laptop computer (176 kJ)

Japan Airlines Boeing 787 lithium cobalt oxide battery that caught fire in 2013

A lithium-ion battery or Li-ion battery is a type of rechargeable battery composed of cells in which lithium ions move from the negative electrode through an electrolyte to the positive electrode during discharge and back when charging.

Rubidium

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Chemical element with the symbol Rb and atomic number 37.

Rubidium crystals (silvery) compared to caesium crystals (golden)

Gustav Kirchhoff (left) and Robert Bunsen (center) discovered rubidium by spectroscopy. (Henry Enfield Roscoe is on the right side.)

A rubidium fountain atomic clock at the United States Naval Observatory

It forms amalgams with mercury and alloys with gold, iron, caesium, sodium, and potassium, but not lithium (even though rubidium and lithium are in the same group).

Sodium

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Chemical element with the symbol Na and atomic number 11.

A positive flame test for sodium has a bright yellow color.

The structure of sodium chloride, showing octahedral coordination around Na+ and Cl− centres. This framework disintegrates when dissolved in water and reassembles when the water evaporates.

Two equivalent images of the chemical structure of sodium stearate, a typical soap.

The structure of the complex of sodium (Na+, shown in yellow) and the antibiotic monensin-A.

NaK phase diagram, showing the melting point of sodium as a function of potassium concentration. NaK with 77% potassium is eutectic and has the lowest melting point of the NaK alloys at −12.6 °C.

Metallic sodium is generally less reactive than potassium and more reactive than lithium.

Helium

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Chemical element with the symbol He and atomic number 2.

Sir William Ramsay, the discoverer of terrestrial helium

The cleveite sample from which Ramsay first purified helium

Historical marker, denoting a massive helium find near Dexter, Kansas

The helium atom. Depicted are the nucleus (pink) and the electron cloud distribution (black). The nucleus (upper right) in helium-4 is in reality spherically symmetric and closely resembles the electron cloud, although for more complicated nuclei this is not always the case.

Binding energy per nucleon of common isotopes. The binding energy per particle of helium-4 is significantly larger than all nearby nuclides.

Helium discharge tube shaped like the element's atomic symbol

Liquefied helium. This helium is not only liquid, but has been cooled to the point of superfluidity. The drop of liquid at the bottom of the glass represents helium spontaneously escaping from the container over the side, to empty out of the container. The energy to drive this process is supplied by the potential energy of the falling helium.

Unlike ordinary liquids, helium II will creep along surfaces in order to reach an equal level; after a short while, the levels in the two containers will equalize. The Rollin film also covers the interior of the larger container; if it were not sealed, the helium II would creep out and escape.

Structure of the helium hydride ion, HHe+

Structure of the suspected fluoroheliate anion, OHeF−

The largest single use of liquid helium is to cool the superconducting magnets in modern MRI scanners.

A dual chamber helium leak detection machine

Because of its low density and incombustibility, helium is the gas of choice to fill airships such as the Goodyear blimp.

Helium can be synthesized by bombardment of lithium or boron with high-velocity protons, or by bombardment of lithium with deuterons, but these processes are a completely uneconomical method of production.

Potassium

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Chemical element with the symbol K and atomic number19.

Structure of solid potassium superoxide.

Monte Kali, a potash mining and beneficiation waste heap in Hesse, Germany, consisting mostly of sodium chloride.

Potassium sulfate/magnesium sulfate fertilizer

Potassium is the second least dense metal after lithium.

Helium-3

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Light, stable isotope of helium with two protons and one neutron (the most common isotope, helium-4, having two protons and two neutrons in contrast).

The fusion reaction rate increases rapidly with temperature until it maximizes and then gradually drops off. The DT rate peaks at a lower temperature (about 70 keV, or 800 million kelvins) and at a higher value than other reactions commonly considered for fusion energy.

Helium-3 is also thought to be a natural nucleogenic and cosmogenic nuclide, one produced when lithium is bombarded by natural neutrons, which can be released by spontaneous fission and by nuclear reactions with cosmic rays.

Walnut Hill Pegmatite Prospect, Huntington, Hampshire County, Massachusetts, U.S. (size: 14.2 x 9.2 x 3.0 cm)

Spodumene

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% Global Lithium Hard Rock Resources By Company.
Major car manufacturers and lithium battery chemical converters are securing long-term agreements for lithium supply, a key raw material in the production of electric vehicle (EV) battery cells

An almost colorless kunzite crystal (upper left), a cut pale pink kunzite (upper right) and a greenish hiddenite crystal (below) (unknown scale)

Hiddenite from Araçuaí, Minas Gerais, Brazil

Spodumene is a pyroxene mineral consisting of lithium aluminium inosilicate, LiAl(SiO3)2, and is a source of lithium.

Cracking in cast LiH after machining with a fly cutter. Scale is in inches.

Lithium hydride

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Lithium hydride is an inorganic compound with the formula LiH.