A report on Long-term memory

Stage of the Atkinson–Shiffrin memory model in which informative knowledge is held indefinitely.

- Long-term memory

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Overall
Humans have two hippocampi, one in each hemisphere of the brain. They are located in the medial temporal lobes of the cerebrum. In this lateral view of the human brain, the frontal lobe is at the left, the occipital lobe at the right, and the temporal and parietal lobes have largely been removed to reveal one of the hippocampi underneath.

Hippocampus

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Major component of the brain of humans and other vertebrates.

Major component of the brain of humans and other vertebrates.

Humans have two hippocampi, one in each hemisphere of the brain. They are located in the medial temporal lobes of the cerebrum. In this lateral view of the human brain, the frontal lobe is at the left, the occipital lobe at the right, and the temporal and parietal lobes have largely been removed to reveal one of the hippocampi underneath.
Image 1: The human hippocampus and fornix (left) compared with a seahorse (right)
Image 2: Cross-section of cerebral hemisphere showing structure and location of hippocampus
Image 3: Coronal section of the brain of a macaque monkey, showing hippocampus (circled)
Image 4: Basic circuit of the hippocampus, as drawn by Cajal DG: dentate gyrus. Sub: subiculum. EC: entorhinal cortex
Image 5: Hippocampal location and regions
Rats and cognitive maps
Image 6: Spatial firing patterns of 8 place cells recorded from the CA1 layer of a rat. The rat ran back and forth along an elevated track, stopping at each end to eat a small food reward. Dots indicate positions where action potentials were recorded, with color indicating which neuron emitted that action potential.
Image 7: Examples of rat hippocampal EEG and CA1 neural activity in the theta (awake/behaving) and LIA (slow-wave sleep) modes. Each plot shows 20 seconds of data, with a hippocampal EEG trace at the top, spike rasters from 40 simultaneously recorded CA1 pyramidal cells in the middle (each raster line represents a different cell), and a plot of running speed at the bottom. The top plot represents a time period during which the rat was actively searching for scattered food pellets. For the bottom plot the rat was asleep.
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Image 9: An EEG showing epilepsy right-hippocampal seizure onset
Image 10: An EEG showing epilepsy left-hippocampal seizure onset
Image 11: Drawing by Italian pathologist Camillo Golgi of a hippocampus stained using the silver nitrate method
thumb|Hippocampus highlighted in green on coronal T1 MRI images
thumb|Hippocampus highlighted in green on sagittal T1 MRI images
thumb|Hippocampus highlighted in green on transversal T1 MRI images

The hippocampus is part of the limbic system, and plays important roles in the consolidation of information from short-term memory to long-term memory, and in spatial memory that enables navigation.

Episodic memory

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Memory of everyday events that can be explicitly stated or conjured.

Memory of everyday events that can be explicitly stated or conjured.

Along with semantic memory, it comprises the category of explicit memory, one of the two major divisions of long-term memory (the other being implicit memory).

Overview of the forms and functions of memory.

Memory

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Faculty of the mind by which data or information is encoded, stored, and retrieved when needed.

Faculty of the mind by which data or information is encoded, stored, and retrieved when needed.

Overview of the forms and functions of memory.
Olin Levi Warner, Memory (1896). Library of Congress Thomas Jefferson Building, Washington, D.C.
The working memory model
The garden of oblivion, illustration by Ephraim Moses Lilien.
Regulatory sequence in a promoter at a transcription start site with a paused RNA polymerase and a TOP2B-induced double-strand break
Brain regions involved in memory formation including medial prefrontal cortex (mPFC)
Regulatory sequence in a promoter at a transcription start site with a paused RNA polymerase and a TOP2B-induced double-strand break

Memory is often understood as an informational processing system with explicit and implicit functioning that is made up of a sensory processor, short-term (or working) memory, and long-term memory.

Hippocampus as seen in red

Explicit memory

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Hippocampus as seen in red
Amygdala as seen in red
The Morris water maze

Explicit memory (or declarative memory) is one of the two main types of long-term human memory, the other of which is implicit memory.

Short-term memory

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Capacity for holding a small amount of information in an active, readily available state for a short interval.

Capacity for holding a small amount of information in an active, readily available state for a short interval.

In contrast, long-term memory holds information indefinitely.

Baddeley and Hitch's model of working memory

Working memory

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Cognitive system with a limited capacity that can hold information temporarily.

Cognitive system with a limited capacity that can hold information temporarily.

Baddeley and Hitch's model of working memory

In a similar vein, Cowan does not regard working memory as a separate system from long-term memory.

The line processes to make information memory

Memory consolidation

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Category of processes that stabilize a memory trace after its initial acquisition.

Category of processes that stabilize a memory trace after its initial acquisition.

The line processes to make information memory
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Long-term memory, when discussed in the context of synaptic consolidation, is conventionally said to be memory that lasts for at least 24 hours.

Amnesie

Amnesia

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Deficit in memory caused by brain damage or disease, but it can also be caused temporarily by the use of various sedatives and hypnotic drugs.

Deficit in memory caused by brain damage or disease, but it can also be caused temporarily by the use of various sedatives and hypnotic drugs.

Amnesie

Anterograde amnesia is the inability to transfer new information from the short-term store into the long-term store.

Hippocampus (brain)

Anterograde amnesia

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Hippocampus (brain)

In neurology, anterograde amnesia is a loss of the ability to create new memories after the event that caused amnesia, leading to a partial or complete inability to recall the recent past, while long-term memories from before the event remain intact.

A countless number of potential procedures

Procedural memory

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A countless number of potential procedures
Screenshot of a computerized version of the pursuit rotor task.
Sidney Crosby in Vancouver, playing for Team Canada
Basal ganglia (red) and related structures (blue) shown within the brain
The cerebellum is highlighted red
Dopamine Pathways in the brain highlighted in Blue
Coronal FSPGR through the brain of Huntington's patient

Procedural memory is a type of implicit memory (unconscious, long-term memory) which aids the performance of particular types of tasks without conscious awareness of these previous experiences.