A report on Luzon and Majapahit

Bangkang pinawa, an ancient Philippine mortar and pestle.

Detail of an illustration from Jean Mallat's Les Philippines (1846), showing "a Tagalog couple pounding rice." The mortar depicted is known as a "lusong", which was also the Old Tagalog name of the Pasig River delta.

The greatest extent of Majapahit influence based on the Nagarakretagama in 1365

U.S. Navy ships under attack while entering Lingayen Gulf, January 1945

A maja fruit growing near Trowulan. The bitter-tasting fruit is the origin of the kingdom's name

Nagarakretagama palm-leaf manuscript. Composed by Mpu Prapanca in 1365, it provides a primary historical account of Majapahit court during the reign of King Hayam Wuruk.

The Central Luzon plain with Mount Arayat in the background

Painting of a 14th-century Yuan junk. Similar ships were sent by the Yuan in their naval armada.

King Kertarajasa portrayed as Harihara, amalgamation of Shiva and Vishnu. Originally located at Candi Simping, Blitar, today it is displayed in National Museum.

A view of Quezon City in September 2017, the largest city in Luzon island

Golden image of a mounted rider, possibly the Hindu god Surya, within a stylised solar halo. Below is a conch flanked by two nagas. 14th-century Majapahit art, National Museum Jakarta.

An Ifugao warrior with some of his trophies, Cordillera Mountains, circa 1912

The statue of Parvati as mortuary deified portrayal of Tribhuwanottunggadewi, queen of Majapahit, mother of Hayam Wuruk.

Dominant languages per administrative region.

Rough estimations of Majapahit's conquest of the Indonesian archipelago (Nusantara) in the 13th century, its decline and its eventual fall in the early 16th century to Demak Sultanate. The existing historical records from several sources only partially describe the years listed and thus are subject to revisions.

Saint Augustine Catholic Church in Paoay

The terracotta figure popularly believed by Mohammad Yamin as the portrait of Gajah Mada, collection of Trowulan Museum. His claim, however, is not backed by historical background.

EDSA, a major thoroughfare in Metro Manila

Gajah Mada inscription, dated 1273 Saka (1351 CE), mentioned about a sacred caitya building dedicated by Gajah Mada for the late King Kertanegara of Singhasari.

North coast of Luzon along the Cagayan-Ilocos Norte boundary

Bronze cannon, called cetbang, Metropolitan Museum of Art, New York, from c. 1470–1478 Majapahit. Note the Surya Majapahit emblem on the bronze cannon.

Summit of Mount Pulag, Luzon's highest mountain

The route of the voyages of Zheng He's fleet, including Majapahit ports.

West coast of Luzon at San Juan overlooking the South China Sea

The mortuary deified portrait statue of Queen Suhita (reign 1429–1447), discovered at Jebuk, Kalangbret, Tulungagung, East Java, National Museum of Indonesia.

The Cagayan Valley at Cabagan with the Sierra Madre mountains in the background

Demak was the earliest Islamic polity in Java that replaced Majapahit.

Canoes along upstream Cagayan River at Quirino province

Wringin Lawang, the 15.5-meter tall red brick split gate in Trowulan, believed to be the entrance of an important compound.

The king of Java and his 7 vassal kings, as imagined in a 15th century British manuscript contained in Friar Odoric's account.

The graceful Bidadari Majapahit, golden celestial apsara in Majapahit style perfectly describes Majapahit as "the golden age" of the archipelago.

Gold figure from the Majapahit period representing Sutasoma being borne by the man-eater Kalmasapada.

Palm leaf manuscript of Kakawin Sutasoma, a 14th-century Javanese poem.

Bas reliefs of Tegowangi temple, dated from Majapahit period, demonstrate the East Javanese style.

Pair of door guardians from a temple, Eastern Java, 14th century, Museum of Asian Art, San Francisco.

Jabung temple near Paiton, Probolinggo, East Java, dated from Majapahit period.

The 16.5-metre tall Bajang Ratu Paduraksa gate, at Trowulan, echoed the grandeur of Majapahit.

The stepped terraces, pavilions, and split gates of Cetho temple complex on mount Lawu slopes.

Majapahit terracotta piggy bank, 14th or 15th century Trowulan, East Java. (Collection of National Museum of Indonesia, Jakarta)

Ancient red-brick canal discovered in Trowulan. Majapahit had a well-developed irrigation infrastructure.

Majapahit core realm and provinces (Mancanagara) in eastern and central parts of Java, including islands of Madura and Bali.

The extent of Majapahit's influence under Hayam Wuruk in 1365 according to Nagarakretagama.

A 1.79 kilogram, 21-karat Majapahit period gold image discovered in Agusan, Philippines, copied Nganjuk bronze images of the early Majapahit period, signify Majapahit cultural influence on southern Philippines.

14th-century gold armlets and rings in East Javanese Majapahit style, found at Fort Canning Hill, Singapore, suggests that Tumasik or Singapura was within Majapahit sphere of influence.

Adityawarman, a senior minister of Majapahit depicted as Bhairava. He established the Pagaruyung Kingdom in Central Sumatra.

On centre bottom row (no. 8) is a Yǒng-Lè Tōng-Bǎo (永樂通寶) cash coin cast under the Yǒng-Lè Emperor (永樂帝) of Ming dynasty. These were cast in great quantities and used by Ashikaga, Ryukyu, as well as Majapahit.

Pura Maospahit ("Majapahit Temple") in Denpasar, Bali, demonstrate the typical Majapahit red brick architecture.

The Majapahit style minaret of Kudus Mosque.

Bas relief from Candi Penataran describes the Javanese-style pendopo pavilion, commonly found across Java and Bali.

The Kris of Knaud, one of the oldest surviving kris is dated to Majapahit period

The high reliefs of Gajah Mada and Majapahit history depicted in Monas, has become the source of Indonesian national pride of past greatness.

Gajah Mada statue in front of Telecommunication Museum in Taman Mini Indonesia Indah, Jakarta. Palapa, Indonesia's first telecommunication satellite launched on 9 July 1976 was named after Palapa oath.

Genealogy diagram of Rajasa dynasty, the royal family of Singhasari and Majapahit. Rulers are highlighted with period of reign.

Theatrical performance depicting the Mongol invasion of Java, performed by 150 students of Indonesian Institute of the Arts, Yogyakarta. The history of Majapahit continues to inspire contemporary artists.

Cropped portion of China Sea in the Miller atlas, showing six and three-masted jong.

Armor depicted in a statue from a candi in Singasari.

This Jiaozhi arquebus is similar to Java arquebus.

Deity holding a cuirass, from earlier, 10-11th century Nganjuk, East Java.

During the 1300s, the Javanese-centered Hindu empire of Majapahit briefly ruled over Luzon as recorded in the epic poem Nagarakretagama, which reports imperial colonies in the Philippines at Saludong (Manila) and Solot (Sulu).

- Luzon

According to the Nagarakretagama, canto XIII and XIV mentioned several states in Sumatra, Malay Peninsula, Borneo, Sulawesi, Nusa Tenggara islands, Maluku, New Guinea, Mindanao, Sulu Archipelago, Luzon and some parts of the Visayas islands as under the Majapahit realm of power.

- Majapahit

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Philippines

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Archipelagic country in Southeast Asia.

The Laguna Copperplate Inscription, the oldest known writing found in the Philippines

Filipino Ilustrados in Spain formed the Propaganda Movement. Photographed in 1890.

General Douglas MacArthur coming ashore during the Battle of Leyte on October 20, 1944

The 1991 eruption of Mount Pinatubo was the second largest volcanic eruption of the 20th century.

Mayon is an active stratovolcano, located in the south of the island of Luzon

The Philippine Eagle is endemic to the forests of the country.

A male Celestial monarch seen in Bislig.

Köppen climate classification of the Philippines

Malacañan Palace is the official residence of the president of the Philippines.

President Rodrigo Duterte and U.S. President Donald Trump discuss matters during a bilateral meeting in November 2017.

BRP Jose Rizal (FF-150) is the lead ship of her class of guided missile frigates of the Philippine Navy

A map that shows all ethnolinguistic groups in the Philippines.

The historical Paoay Church in Ilocos Norte. Declared as a National Cultural Treasure by the Philippine government in 1973 and a UNESCO World Heritage Site under the collective group of Baroque Churches of the Philippines in 1993.

Founded in 1611, the University of Santo Tomas is the oldest extant university in Asia.

Real GPD per capita development of the Philippines

A proportional representation of Philippines exports, 2019

Filipinos planting rice. Agriculture employs 23% of the Filipino workforce.

Headquarters of the International Rice Research Institute in Los Baños, Laguna.

An LRT Line 2 train at Santolan station.

A participant of the Ati-Atihan Festival.

A statue in Iriga City commemorating the mano po gesture

Cariñosa, a Hispanic era dance for traditional Filipino courtship.

José Rizal is a pioneer of Philippine Revolution through his literary works.

Philippines men's national basketball team celebrating the 2015 Southeast Asian Games championship.

It is situated in the western Pacific Ocean and consists of around 7,641 islands that are broadly categorized under three main geographical divisions from north to south: Luzon, Visayas, and Mindanao.

Indian cultural traits, such as linguistic terms and religious practices, began to spread within the Philippines during the 10th century, likely via the Hindu Majapahit empire.

Austronesian peoples

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The Austronesian peoples, sometimes referred to as Austronesian-speaking peoples, are a large group of peoples in Taiwan, Maritime Southeast Asia, Micronesia, coastal New Guinea, Island Melanesia, Polynesia, and Madagascar that speak Austronesian languages.

Skulls representing Johann Friedrich Blumenbach's "five races" in De Generis Humani Varietate Nativa (1795). The Tahitian skull labelled "O-taheitae" represented what he called the "Malay race"

The New Physiognomy map (1889) printed by the Fowler & Wells Company depicting Johann Friedrich Blumenbach's five human races. The region inhabited by the "Malay race" is shown enclosed in dotted lines. Like in most 19th century sources, Islander Melanesians are excluded. Taiwan, which was annexed by the Qing Dynasty in the 17th century is also excluded.

Distribution of the Austronesian languages (Blust, 1999)

Paraw sailboats from Boracay, Philippines. Outrigger canoes and crab claw sails are hallmarks of the Austronesian maritime culture.

Coconuts in Rangiroa island in the Tuamotus, French Polynesia, a typical island landscape in Austronesia. Coconuts are native to tropical Asia, and were spread as canoe plants to the Pacific Islands and Madagascar by Austronesians.

Extent of contemporary Austronesia and possible further migrations and contact (Blench, 2009)

Map showing the distribution of the Austronesian language family (light rose pink). It roughly corresponds to the distribution of all the Austronesian peoples.

Samoan man carrying two containers over his shoulder

The Javanese people of Indonesia are the largest Austronesian ethnic group.

Representation of the coastal migration model, with the indication of the later development of mitochondrial haplogroups

Coastlines of Island Southeast Asia, New Guinea, and Australia during the last glacial period

Aeta fishermen in an outrigger canoe in Luzon, Philippines (c. 1899)

Possible language family homelands and the spread of rice into Southeast Asia (ca. 5,500–2,500 BP). The approximate coastlines during the early Holocene are shown in lighter blue.

Yue statue of a tattooed Baiyue man in the Zhejiang Provincial Museum (c. 3rd century BCE)

Suggested early migration route of early Austronesians into and out of Taiwan based on ancient and modern mtDNA data. This hypothesis assumes the Sino-Austronesian grouping, a minority view among linguists. (Ko et al., 2014)

Proposed routes of Austroasiatic and Austronesian migrations into Indonesia (Simanjuntak, 2017)

Proposed genesis of Daic languages and their relation with Austronesians (Blench, 2018)

Early waves of migration to Taiwan proposed by Roger Blench (2014)

Colorized photograph of a Tsou warrior from Taiwan wearing traditional clothing (pre-World War II)

Map showing the migration of the Austronesians

Hōkūlea, a modern replica of a Polynesian double-hulled voyaging canoe, is an example of a catamaran, another of the early sailing innovations of Austronesians

Proposed migration waves from Sundaland in the Late Pleistocene based on mtDNA data; and later "back-migrations" into Island Southeast Asia during the early to mid-Holocene expansion of rice-farming Austronesians from mainland southern China. The extent of the coastlines of Sundaland during the last ice age is presented in light shading; while modern coastlines after the rise of sea levels in the Late Pleistocene to mid-Holocene is in dark shading. (Brandão et al., 2016)

Queen Liliuokalani, the last sovereign monarch of the Kingdom of Hawaii

Succession of forms in the development of the Austronesian boat

Austronesian proto-historic and historic maritime trade network in the Indian Ocean

Sama-Bajau villages are typically built directly on shallow water

The raised bale houses of the Ifugao people with capped house posts are believed to be derived from the designs of traditional granaries

Tongkonan houses of the Toraja people with the distinctive saddleback roofs reminiscent of boats

Bai meeting house of the Palauan people with colourfully decorated gables

Cast of a Lapita red-slipped earthenware shard from the Santa Cruz Islands (c. 1000 BCE), showing dentate-stamped, circle-stamped, and cross-in-circle decorations. The latter two are shared elements from Neolithic red-slipped pottery from the Nagsabaran Site in the Philippines.

Hand stencils in the "Tree of Life" cave painting in Gua Tewet, Kalimantan, Indonesia

Watu Molindo ("the entertainer stone"), one of the megaliths in Bada Valley, Central Sulawesi, Indonesia, usually found near megalithic stone vats known as kalamba.

Toraja megaliths memorializing the deceased in Sulawesi, Indonesia

Boats and human figures in a cave painting in the Niah National Park of Sarawak, Malaysia; an example of the Austronesian Painting Traditions (APT)

Petroglyphs in Vanuatu with the concentric circles and swirling designs characteristic of the Austronesian Engraving Style (AES)

Haligi pillars from the Latte period of Guam, these served as supports for raised buildings

The ruins of Nan Madol, a stone city built on artificial islets in Pohnpei

A rai stone, large stone discs used as currency in Yap

A marae sacred site in Raiatea, French Polynesia

Hawaiian petroglyph depicting a poi dog (īlio)

Carving of Rongo, the Māori deity (atua) of kūmara, from Taranaki, North Island, New Zealand

A 1782 illustration of a heiau temple in Hawaii

Elder Tayal women from Taiwan with facial tattoos

Teeth filing on a Mentawai man in the Mentawai Islands, Dutch East Indies, c. 1938

Tablet B of rongorongo, an undeciphered system of glyphs from Rapa Nui

An example of the abundant petroglyphs in Orongo, Rapa Nui associated with the tangata manu cult of Makemake. Rongorongo does not appear in any of these petroglyphs.

The Talang Tuo inscription, a 7th-century Srivijaya stele featuring Old Malay written in a derivative of the Pallava script

Page from Doctrina Cristiana Española Y Tagala (1593) featuring the Baybayin script alongside the Latin alphabet

Wharenui meeting house of the Māori people

Bahay kubo of the Filipinos. Also known as Payag in Visayan.

Kubing jaw harps, flutes, and a kagul slit drum from the Philippines

Karinding jaw harps of the Sundanese people, Indonesia

Sapeh, traditional lutes of the Orang Ulu people of Malaysia

Atingting kon, wooden slit drums from Vanuatu

A kanaka maoli (native) from Hawaii performing the hula

Traditional song and dance at a funeral in Tana Toraja, Sulawesi, Indonesia

Ramayana Ballet, traditional theatre dance from Java, Indonesia

Gending Sriwijaya, traditional dance from Palembang, Indonesia

A Minahasan Kabasaran war dancer from Tomohon, North Sulawesi, Indonesia

Hudoq, traditional dance from Kalimantan, Indonesia

Aloalo funerary pole of the Sakalava people of Madagascar

Adu zatua ancestor carvings of the Nias people of western Indonesia

Taotao carvings of anito ancestor spirits from the Ifugao people, Philippines

Ki'i carving at Puʻuhonua o Hōnaunau, Hawaii

Māori poupou from the Ruato tomb of Rotorua

Toraja tau tau (wooden statue of the deceased) in South Sulawesi, Indonesia

Balinese small familial house shrines to honor the households' ancestors in Bali, Indonesia

Northern Luzon lowlanders (e.g., Ilocano, Ibanag, Itawes).

The adoption of Hindu statecraft model allowed the creation of Indianized kingdoms such as Tarumanagara, Champa, Butuan, Langkasuka, Melayu, Srivijaya, Medang Mataram, Majapahit, and Bali.

Detail of an illustration from Jean Mallat's 1846 book "The Philippines: history, geography, customs, agriculture, industry, and commerce of the Spanish colonies in Oceania", showing "a Tagalog couple pounding rice." The mortar depicted is known as a "lusong", a large, cylindrical, deep-mouthed wooden mortal used to de-husk rice. Linguist Jean Paul Potet explains that the Old Tagalog name of the Pasig River delta, in which Tondo was located, was derived from this mortar.

Maynila (historical polity)

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Major Tagalog city-state on the southern part of the Pasig River delta, where the district of Intramuros currently stands.

A map showing the extent of the Austronesian expansion.

Islamization of Luzon began in the sixteenth century when traders from Brunei settled in the Manila area and married locals while maintaining kinship and trade links with Brunei and thus other Muslim centres in Southeast Asia.

In the mid 14th century, the Majapahit empire mentioned in its manuscript Nagarakretagama Canto 14, written by Prapanca in 1365, that the area of Saludung (Selurong) and Solot (Sulu) were parts of the empire.