A report on Maize

Plant fragments dated to 4200 BC found in the Guilá Naquitz Cave in Oaxaca, Mexico, showed maize had already been domesticated from teosinte.
Cultivation of maize in an illustration from the 16th c. Florentine Codex
Ancient Mesoamerican relief, National Museum of Anthropology of Mexico
Many small male flowers make up the male inflorescence, called the tassel.
Zea mays 'Ottofile giallo Tortonese` – MHNT
Zea mays "strawberry"—MHNT
Zea mays "Oaxacan Green" MHNT
Variegated maize ears
Multicolored corn kernels (CSIRO)
Exotic varieties of maize are collected to add genetic diversity when selectively breeding new domestic strains
Teosinte (top), maize-teosinte hybrid (middle), maize (bottom)
Stucco head of the Maya maize god, 550–850 AD
Seedlings three weeks after sowing
Young stalks
Mature plants showing ears
Mature maize ears
Harvesting maize, Jones County, Iowa
Harvesting maize, Rantasalmi, South Savonia, Finland
Hand-picking harvest of maize in Myanmar
Production of maize (2019)
Semi-peeled corn on the cob
Poster showing a woman serving muffins, pancakes, and grits, with canisters on the table labeled corn meal, grits, and hominy, US Food Administration, 1918
Mexican tamales made with corn meal
Boiled corn on a white plate
Farm-based maize silage digester located near Neumünster in Germany, 2007. Green inflatable biogas holder is shown on top of the digester.
Children playing in a maize kernel box
Female inflorescence, with young silk
Mature silk
Stalks, ears and silk
Male flowers
Full-grown maize plants
Mature maize ear on a stalk
Maize kernels
Maize plant diagram
Ear of maize with irregular rows of kernels
With white and yellow kernels

Maize (Zea mays subsp.

- Maize

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Poaceae

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Large and nearly ubiquitous family of monocotyledonous flowering plants commonly known as grasses.

Large and nearly ubiquitous family of monocotyledonous flowering plants commonly known as grasses.

Inflorecence scheme and floral diagram. 1 – glume, 2 – lemma, 3 – awn, 4 – palea, 5 – lodicules, 6 – stamens, 7 – ovary, 8 – styles.
Grass flowers
A kangaroo eating grass
Wind-blown grass in the Valles Caldera in New Mexico, United States
Setaria verticillata from Panicoideae
A lawn in front of a building
The gray area is the cricket pitch currently in use. Parallel to it are other pitches in various states of preparation which could be used in other matches.
Grass-covered house in Iceland
Typical grass seen in meadows
Leaves of Poa trivialis showing the ligules
Bamboo stem and leaves, nodes are evident
A Chasmanthium latifolium spikelet
Wheat spike and spikelet
Spikelet opened to show caryopsis
Harestail grass
Grass
Sugarcane (Saccharum officinarum)
Roots of Bromus hordeaceus
Barley mature spikes (Hordeum vulgare)
Illustration depicting both staminate and pistillate flowers of maize (Zea mays)
A grass flower head (meadow foxtail) showing the plain-coloured flowers with large anthers.
Anthers detached from a meadow foxtail flower
Setaria verticillata, bristly foxtail
Setaria verticillata, bristly foxtail
Oryza sativa, Kerala, India

The Poaceae are the most economically important plant family, providing staple foods from domesticated cereal crops such as maize, wheat, rice, barley, and millet as well as feed for meat-producing animals.

Barley

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Major cereal grain grown in temperate climates globally.

Major cereal grain grown in temperate climates globally.

Barley seeds with and without the outer husk
Seed under a microscope.
Barley
The cross-section of a barley root
Two-row and six-row barley
Barley
Genetic analysis on the spread of barley from 9,000 to 2,000 BCE
An account of barley rations issued monthly to adults (30 or 40 pints) and children (20 pints) written in cuneiform on clay tablet, written in year 4 of King Urukagina (circa 2350 BCE), from Girsu, Iraq, British Museum, London
Barley harvesting in Gaziantep, Turkey
Barley, oats, and some products made from them
Traditional floor malting of barley in Scotland
Barley straw used in a pond in Oud-Heverlee, Belgium
Non-hulless barley grains

In 2017, barley was ranked fourth among grains in quantity produced (149 e6t) behind maize, rice and wheat.

Masa dough for tortillas

Masa

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Masa dough for tortillas
The process of making masa from maize

Masa (or masa de maíz) is a maize dough that comes from ground nixtamalized corn.

Seeds of various plants. Row 1: poppy, red pepper, strawberry, apple tree, blackberry, rice, carum, Row 2: mustard, eggplant, physalis, grapes, raspberries, red rice, patchouli, Row 3: figs, lycium barbarum, beets, blueberries, golden kiwifruit, rosehip, basil, Row 4: pink pepper, tomato, radish, carrot, matthiola, dill, coriander, Row 5: black pepper, white cabbage, napa cabbage, seabuckthorn, parsley, dandelion, capsella bursa-pastoris, Row 6: cauliflower, radish, kiwifruit, grenadilla, passion fruit, melissa, tagetes erecta.

Seed

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Embryonic plant enclosed in a protective outer covering, along with a food reserve.

Embryonic plant enclosed in a protective outer covering, along with a food reserve.

Seeds of various plants. Row 1: poppy, red pepper, strawberry, apple tree, blackberry, rice, carum, Row 2: mustard, eggplant, physalis, grapes, raspberries, red rice, patchouli, Row 3: figs, lycium barbarum, beets, blueberries, golden kiwifruit, rosehip, basil, Row 4: pink pepper, tomato, radish, carrot, matthiola, dill, coriander, Row 5: black pepper, white cabbage, napa cabbage, seabuckthorn, parsley, dandelion, capsella bursa-pastoris, Row 6: cauliflower, radish, kiwifruit, grenadilla, passion fruit, melissa, tagetes erecta.
Plant ovules: Gymnosperm ovule on left, angiosperm ovule (inside ovary) on right
The inside of a Ginkgo seed, showing a well-developed embryo, nutritive tissue (megagametophyte), and a bit of the surrounding seed coat
The parts of an avocado seed (a dicot), showing the seed coat and embryo
Diagram of the internal structure of a dicot seed and embryo: (a) seed coat, (b) endosperm, (c) cotyledon, (d) hypocotyl
Diagram of a generalized dicot seed (1) versus a generalized monocot seed (2). A. Scutellum B. Cotyledon C. Hilum D. Plumule E. Radicle F. Endosperm
Comparison of monocotyledons and dicotyledons
Seed coat of pomegranate
A collection of various vegetable and herb seeds
Dandelion seeds are contained within achenes, which can be carried long distances by the wind.
The seed pod of milkweed (Asclepias syriaca)
Germinating sunflower seedlings
Microbial transmission from seed to seedling
Phaseolus vulgaris (common bean or green bean) seeds are diverse in size, shape, and color.
The massive fruit of the coco de mer

The term "seed" also has a general meaning that antedates the above – anything that can be sown, e.g. "seed" potatoes, "seeds" of corn or sunflower "seeds".

Cassava

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Woody shrub of the spurge family, Euphorbiaceae, native to South America.

Woody shrub of the spurge family, Euphorbiaceae, native to South America.

Cassava plant
17th c. painting by Albert Eckhout in Dutch Brazil
Taíno women preparing cassava bread in 1565: grating yuca roots into paste, shaping the bread, and cooking it on a fire-heated burén
A cassava tuber in cross-section
Processing cassava starch into cassava noodles, Kampong Cham
Cassava heavy cake
A woman washes cassava in a river
Cassava root, peeled and soaking
Cassava bread
Cassava stakes
Cassava grafting
thumb|Flower of cassava
Cassava starch processing
Cassava starch flour processing
Cassava starch wet-processing
Cassava starch
Spreading Casabe burrero (cassava bread) to dry, Venezuela
Cassava starch being prepared for packaging
Cassava starch packaged and ready for shipping
Frozen cassava leaves in a Los Angeles market

Cassava is the third-largest source of food carbohydrates in the tropics, after rice and maize.

A sample of biodiesel

Biofuel

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Fuel that is produced over a short time span from biomass, rather than by the very slow natural processes involved in the formation of fossil fuels, such as oil.

Fuel that is produced over a short time span from biomass, rather than by the very slow natural processes involved in the formation of fossil fuels, such as oil.

A sample of biodiesel
Biofuel energy production, 2019
220x220px
Neat ethanol on the left (A), gasoline on the right (G) at a filling station in Brazil
Biofuel pumps DCA 07 2010 9834
Targray Biofuels Division railcar transporting Biodiesel.
This truck is one of 15 based at Walmart's Buckeye, Arizona distribution center that was converted to run on a biofuel made from reclaimed cooking grease produced during food preparation at Walmart stores.
Biofuel production by region

Bioethanol is an alcohol made by fermentation, mostly from carbohydrates produced in sugar or starch crops such as corn, sugarcane, or sweet sorghum. Cellulosic biomass, derived from non-food sources, such as trees and grasses, is also being developed as a feedstock for ethanol production. Ethanol can be used as a fuel for vehicles in its pure form (E100), but it is usually used as a gasoline additive to increase octane ratings and improve vehicle emissions.

An Olmec colossal head at the Xalapa Museum of Anthropology, in Veracruz, Mexico

Pre-Columbian era

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In the history of the Americas, the pre-Columbian era spans from the original settlement of North and South America in the Upper Paleolithic period through European colonization, which began with Christopher Columbus's voyage of 1492.

In the history of the Americas, the pre-Columbian era spans from the original settlement of North and South America in the Upper Paleolithic period through European colonization, which began with Christopher Columbus's voyage of 1492.

An Olmec colossal head at the Xalapa Museum of Anthropology, in Veracruz, Mexico
Schematic illustration of maternal (mtDNA) gene-flow in and out of Beringia, from 25,000 years ago to present
Major cultural areas of the pre-Columbian Americas:
Artist's reconstruction of Poverty Point, 1500 BCE
Hopewell mounds from the Mound City Group in Ohio
One of the pyramids in the upper level of Yaxchilán
Atlantes at Tula, Hidalgo
Maya architecture at Uxmal
Geoglyphs on deforested land in the Amazon rainforest
Muisca raft. The figure refers to the ceremony of the legend of El Dorado.
The ancient city of Caral
Larco Museum houses the largest private collection of pre-Columbian art. Lima, Peru.
Gate of the Sun in Tiwanaku
Simplified map of subsistence methods in the Americas at 1000 BCE
hunter-gatherers
simple farming societies
complex farming societies (tribal chiefdoms or civilizations)

They grew maize and other crops intensively, participated in an extensive trade network and had a complex stratified society.

New World native plants. Clockwise, from top left: 1. Maize (Zea mays); 2. Tomato (Solanum lycopersicum); 3. Potato (Solanum tuberosum); 4. Vanilla (Vanilla); 5. Pará rubber tree (Hevea brasiliensis); 6. Cacao (Theobroma cacao); 7. Tobacco (Nicotiana rustica)

Columbian exchange

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The widespread transfer of plants, animals, precious metals, commodities, culture, human populations, technology, diseases, and ideas between the New World in the Western Hemisphere, and the Old World (Afro-Eurasia) in the Eastern Hemisphere, in the late 15th and following centuries.

The widespread transfer of plants, animals, precious metals, commodities, culture, human populations, technology, diseases, and ideas between the New World in the Western Hemisphere, and the Old World (Afro-Eurasia) in the Eastern Hemisphere, in the late 15th and following centuries.

New World native plants. Clockwise, from top left: 1. Maize (Zea mays); 2. Tomato (Solanum lycopersicum); 3. Potato (Solanum tuberosum); 4. Vanilla (Vanilla); 5. Pará rubber tree (Hevea brasiliensis); 6. Cacao (Theobroma cacao); 7. Tobacco (Nicotiana rustica)
Old World native plants. Clockwise, from top left: 1. Citrus (Rutaceae); 2. Apple (Malus domestica); 3. Banana (Musa); 4. Mango (Mangifera); 5. Onion (Allium); 6. Coffee (Coffea); 7. Wheat (Triticum spp.); 8. Rice (Oryza sativa)
Sixteenth-century Aztec drawings of victims of smallpox
Slaves working at a plantation in Virginia, depicted in 1670
Inca-era terraces on Taquile are used to grow traditional Andean staples such as quinoa and potatoes, alongside wheat, a European introduction.
Native Americans learned to use horses to chase bison, dramatically expanding their hunting range.
Evangelization of Mexico
A figurine featuring the New World's independently invented wheel. Among the places where wheeled toys were found, Mesoamerica is the only one where the wheel was never put to practical use before the 16th century.

American crops such as maize, potatoes, tomatoes, tobacco, cassava, sweet potatoes, and chili peppers became important crops around the world.

Popcorn

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An early popcorn machine in a street cart, invented in the 1880s by Charles Cretors in Chicago.
Specimen of Zea Mays Everta
The sequence of a kernel popping
An in-home hot-air popcorn maker
"Mushroom"-shaped popcorn, left, is less fragile and less tender than "butterfly"-shaped, right.
Popcorn grown in Mozambique and sold in the marketplace
Movie theater popcorn in a bucket in the United States
Gangnaengi, Korean popcorn

Popcorn (also called popped corn, popcorns or pop-corn) is a variety of corn kernel which expands and puffs up when heated; the same names also refer to the foodstuff produced by the expansion.

Flint corn

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Flint corn (Zea mays var.

Flint corn (Zea mays var.

indurata; also known as Indian corn or sometimes calico corn) is a variant of maize, the same species as common corn.