A report on Majapahit and Srivijaya

The maximum extent of Srivijaya around the 8th century with a series of Srivijayan expeditions and conquest
The greatest extent of Majapahit influence based on the Nagarakretagama in 1365
Map of the expansion of the Srivijaya empire, beginning in Palembang in the 7th century, then extending to most of Sumatra, then expanding to Java, Riau Islands, Bangka Belitung, Singapore, Malay Peninsula (also known as: Kra Peninsula), Thailand, Cambodia, South Vietnam, Kalimantan, Sarawak, Brunei, Sabah, and ended as the Malay Kingdom of Dharmasraya in Jambi in the 14th century
A maja fruit growing near Trowulan. The bitter-tasting fruit is the origin of the kingdom's name
Talang Tuwo inscription, discovered in Bukit Seguntang area, tells the establishment of the sacred Śrīksetra park
Nagarakretagama palm-leaf manuscript. Composed by Mpu Prapanca in 1365, it provides a primary historical account of Majapahit court during the reign of King Hayam Wuruk.
Floating houses in Musi River bank near Palembang in 1917. The Srivijayan capital was probably formed from a collection of floating houses like this
Painting of a 14th-century Yuan junk. Similar ships were sent by the Yuan in their naval armada.
Srivijaya Archaeological Park (green) located southwest from the centre of Palembang. The site forms an axis connecting Bukit Seguntang and Musi River.
King Kertarajasa portrayed as Harihara, amalgamation of Shiva and Vishnu. Originally located at Candi Simping, Blitar, today it is displayed in National Museum.
Muaro Jambi Buddhist temple compound, a possible location of Srivijaya's religious center.
Golden image of a mounted rider, possibly the Hindu god Surya, within a stylised solar halo. Below is a conch flanked by two nagas. 14th-century Majapahit art, National Museum Jakarta.
By the late 8th century, the political capital was shifted to Central Java, when the Sailendras rose to become the Maharaja of Srivijaya.
The statue of Parvati as mortuary deified portrayal of Tribhuwanottunggadewi, queen of Majapahit, mother of Hayam Wuruk.
The Kedukan Bukit inscription displayed in the National Museum of Indonesia
Rough estimations of Majapahit's conquest of the Indonesian archipelago (Nusantara) in the 13th century, its decline and its eventual fall in the early 16th century to Demak Sultanate. The existing historical records from several sources only partially describe the years listed and thus are subject to revisions.
The golden Malayu-Srivijayan Avalokiteśvara Bodhisattva in Rataukapastuo, Muarabulian, Jambi, Indonesia
The terracotta figure popularly believed by Mohammad Yamin as the portrait of Gajah Mada, collection of Trowulan Museum. His claim, however, is not backed by historical background.
Malay polities in Sumatra and Malay Peninsula. By the turn of the 8th century the states in Sumatra and Malay Peninsula were under Srivijayan domination.
Gajah Mada inscription, dated 1273 Saka (1351 CE), mentioned about a sacred caitya building dedicated by Gajah Mada for the late King Kertanegara of Singhasari.
The construction of the Borobudur was completed under the reign of Samaratunga of the Sailendra dynasty.
Bronze cannon, called cetbang, Metropolitan Museum of Art, New York, from c. 1470–1478 Majapahit. Note the Surya Majapahit emblem on the bronze cannon.
Ancient Javanese vessel depicted in Borobudur. In 990 King Dharmawangsa of Java launched a naval attack against Srivijaya in Sumatra.
The route of the voyages of Zheng He's fleet, including Majapahit ports.
A Siamese painting depicting the Chola raid on Kedah
The mortuary deified portrait statue of Queen Suhita (reign 1429–1447), discovered at Jebuk, Kalangbret, Tulungagung, East Java, National Museum of Indonesia.
Ruins of the Wat Kaew in Chaiya, dating from Srivijayan times
Demak was the earliest Islamic polity in Java that replaced Majapahit.
Candi Gumpung, a Buddhist temple at the Muaro Jambi Temple Compounds of the Melayu Kingdom, later integrated as one of Srivijaya's important urban centre
Wringin Lawang, the 15.5-meter tall red brick split gate in Trowulan, believed to be the entrance of an important compound.
Statue of Amoghapasa on top of inscription (1286) sent by Kertanegara of Singhasari to be erected in Suvarnabhumi Dharmasraya
The king of Java and his 7 vassal kings, as imagined in a 15th century British manuscript contained in Friar Odoric's account.
Telaga Batu inscription adorned with seven nāga heads on top, and a waterspout on the lower part to channel the water probably poured during a ceremonial allegiance ritual
The graceful Bidadari Majapahit, golden celestial apsara in Majapahit style perfectly describes Majapahit as "the golden age" of the archipelago.
Expansion of Buddhism starting in the 5th century BCE from northern India to the rest of Asia, which followed both inland and maritime trade routes of the Silk Road. Srivijaya once served as a centre of Buddhist learning and expansion. The overland and maritime "Silk Roads" were interlinked and complementary, forming what scholars have called the "great circle of Buddhism".
Gold figure from the Majapahit period representing Sutasoma being borne by the man-eater Kalmasapada.
1 masa, silver coin of Srivijaya, circa 7th - 10th century.
Palm leaf manuscript of Kakawin Sutasoma, a 14th-century Javanese poem.
Candi Tinggi, one of the temples within Muaro Jambi temple compound
Bas reliefs of Tegowangi temple, dated from Majapahit period, demonstrate the East Javanese style.
Pagoda in Srivijaya style in Chaiya, Thailand
Pair of door guardians from a temple, Eastern Java, 14th century, Museum of Asian Art, San Francisco.
The gilded costume of South Sumatran Gending Sriwijaya dance invoked the splendour of the Srivijaya Empire.
Jabung temple near Paiton, Probolinggo, East Java, dated from Majapahit period.
The Sriwijaya Museum in Srivijaya Archaeological Park
The 16.5-metre tall Bajang Ratu Paduraksa gate, at Trowulan, echoed the grandeur of Majapahit.
The stepped terraces, pavilions, and split gates of Cetho temple complex on mount Lawu slopes.
Majapahit terracotta piggy bank, 14th or 15th century Trowulan, East Java. (Collection of National Museum of Indonesia, Jakarta)
Ancient red-brick canal discovered in Trowulan. Majapahit had a well-developed irrigation infrastructure.
Majapahit core realm and provinces (Mancanagara) in eastern and central parts of Java, including islands of Madura and Bali.
The extent of Majapahit's influence under Hayam Wuruk in 1365 according to Nagarakretagama.
A 1.79 kilogram, 21-karat Majapahit period gold image discovered in Agusan, Philippines, copied Nganjuk bronze images of the early Majapahit period, signify Majapahit cultural influence on southern Philippines.
Asia in the early 14th century
14th-century gold armlets and rings in East Javanese Majapahit style, found at Fort Canning Hill, Singapore, suggests that Tumasik or Singapura was within Majapahit sphere of influence.
Adityawarman, a senior minister of Majapahit depicted as Bhairava. He established the Pagaruyung Kingdom in Central Sumatra.
On centre bottom row (no. 8) is a Yǒng-Lè Tōng-Bǎo (永樂通寶) cash coin cast under the Yǒng-Lè Emperor (永樂帝) of Ming dynasty. These were cast in great quantities and used by Ashikaga, Ryukyu, as well as Majapahit.
Pura Maospahit ("Majapahit Temple") in Denpasar, Bali, demonstrate the typical Majapahit red brick architecture.
The Majapahit style minaret of Kudus Mosque.
Bas relief from Candi Penataran describes the Javanese-style pendopo pavilion, commonly found across Java and Bali.
The Kris of Knaud, one of the oldest surviving kris is dated to Majapahit period
The high reliefs of Gajah Mada and Majapahit history depicted in Monas, has become the source of Indonesian national pride of past greatness.
Gajah Mada statue in front of Telecommunication Museum in Taman Mini Indonesia Indah, Jakarta. Palapa, Indonesia's first telecommunication satellite launched on 9 July 1976 was named after Palapa oath.
Genealogy diagram of Rajasa dynasty, the royal family of Singhasari and Majapahit. Rulers are highlighted with period of reign.
Theatrical performance depicting the Mongol invasion of Java, performed by 150 students of Indonesian Institute of the Arts, Yogyakarta. The history of Majapahit continues to inspire contemporary artists.
Cropped portion of China Sea in the Miller atlas, showing six and three-masted jong.
Armor depicted in a statue from a candi in Singasari.
This Jiaozhi arquebus is similar to Java arquebus.
Deity holding a cuirass, from earlier, 10-11th century Nganjuk, East Java.
Various keris and pole weapons of Java

The kingdom ceased to exist in the 13th century due to various factors, including the expansion of the competitor Javanese Singhasari and Majapahit empires.

- Srivijaya

He invited China to resume the tributary system, just like Srivijaya did several centuries earlier.

- Majapahit

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Overall
Expansion of Singhasari during the reign of Kertanegara

Singhasari

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Javanese Hindu kingdom located in east Java between 1222 and 1292.

Javanese Hindu kingdom located in east Java between 1222 and 1292.

Expansion of Singhasari during the reign of Kertanegara
A mandala of Amoghapāśa from the Singhasari period
The serene beauty of Prajnaparamita statue found near Singhasari temple is believed to be the portrayal statue of Queen Ken Dedes, wife of Ken Arok (the collection of National Museum of Indonesia).
Singhasari temple built as a mortuary temple to honour Kertanegara, the last king of Singhasari.
The land of Singhasari when at its peak during 1291
Genealogy diagram of Rajasa Dynasty, the royal family of Singhasari and Majapahit. Rulers are highlighted with period of reign.

He is considered the founder of the Rajasa dynasty of both the Singhasari and later the Majapahit line of monarchs.

In the year 1275, the ambitious king Kertanegara, the fifth ruler of Singhasari who had been reigning since 1254, launched a peaceful naval campaign northward towards the weak remains of the Srivijaya in response to continuous Ceylon pirate raids and Chola kingdom's invasion from India which conquered Srivijaya's Kedah in 1025.

Palembang

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Capital city of the Indonesian province of South Sumatra.

Capital city of the Indonesian province of South Sumatra.

Srivijaya Archaeological Park located southwest from Palembang city centre (green). The site forms an axis connecting Bukit Seguntang and Musi River.
A statue of Buddha, discovered in Bukit Seguntang archaeological site, today displayed in Sultan Mahmud Badaruddin II Museum Palembang
The walled city of Palembang with its three fortresses in 1682
Local elders of Palembang during the Dutchcolonial period
A painting of Palembang during Dutch rule
Coat of arms of Palembang during colonial era, adopted in 1925
Imperial Japanese Army paratroopers landing during the battle of Palembang, 13 February 1942
The opening ceremony of the 2011 Southeast Asian Games in Jakabaring Stadium, Palembang, 11 November 2011
A NASA satellite image showing the extent of the haze on 24 September 2015. Palembang was directly affected by the haze during this time, disrupting air travels and worsening the health of its residents.
Panorama of Palembang from southeast to southwest as seen from Pasar 16 Ilir
Kajang boats were widely used for transportation in Musi River during colonial times.
Sultan Mahmud Badaruddin II International Airport station of the Palembang Light Rail Transit
View of central area in Palembang Icon Shopping Mall
Great Mosque of Palembang
People enjoying local dishes on floating warung boats
Rumah Limas of IDR 10000 banknote is now located in Museum Balaputradewa, Palembang
Bukit Siguntang Mahameru (Seguntang Hill), Palembang. Based on the Sejarah Melayu (Malay Annals), the hill witnessed the arrival of Sri Maharaja Sang Sapurba Paduka Sri Trimurti Tri Buana, a legendary figure believed to be the progenitor of many royal Malay dynasties in Sumatra, Malay Peninsula and Borneo.
Al-Qur'an Al-Akbar, a major religious site in Palembang. A five-story gigantic replica of the Quran.
Palembang bride in Aesan Gede wedding costume wearing gold jewellery and songket
Jakabaring Aquatic Center in Jakabaring Sport City complex
SMA Negeri 19 Palembang, a public high school in Palembang
SMA PGRI 2 Palembang, a private high school in Palembang

It was the capital of Srivijaya, a Buddhist kingdom that ruled much of the western Indonesian Archipelago and controlled many maritime trade routes, including the Strait of Malacca.

Some say that the name was given by four brothers who survived a shipwreck near Musi River during the Majapahit reign.

Kelantan

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State in Malaysia.

State in Malaysia.

The 17th century Mao Kun map from Wubei Zhi which is based on the early 15th century navigation maps of Zheng He showing Kelantan river estuary (吉蘭丹港).
The flag of Kelantan before 1924.
Thousands flocked into the streets of Kota Bharu to witness the Burung Petala Procession in 1933.
Tengku Muhammad Faiz Petra Mosque.
Reclining Buddha in Wat Photivihan.

Early Kelantan had links to the Funan Kingdom, the Khmer Empire, Sri Vijaya, Majapahit and Siam.

Kingdom of Singapore, with ruins of an old wall still visible in 1825 and marked on this map.

Kingdom of Singapura

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Indianised Malay Hindu-Buddhist kingdom thought to have been established during the early history of Singapore upon its main island Pulau Ujong, then also known as Temasek, from 1299 until its fall in 1398.

Indianised Malay Hindu-Buddhist kingdom thought to have been established during the early history of Singapore upon its main island Pulau Ujong, then also known as Temasek, from 1299 until its fall in 1398.

Kingdom of Singapore, with ruins of an old wall still visible in 1825 and marked on this map.
The 1573 map by Egnazio Danti showing Cingatola as an island located on the tip of Regio di Malaca.
Historic Indosphere cultural influence zone of Greater India for transmission of elements of Indian elements such as the honorific titles, naming of people, naming of places, mottos of organisations and educational institutes as well as adoption of Hinduism, Buddhism, Indian architecture, martial arts, Indian music and dance, traditional Indian clothing, and Indian cuisine, a process which has also been aided by the ongoing historic expansion of Indian diaspora.
Statue of Sang Nila Utama at the Raffles' Landing Site.
Depiction of Malay warriors of ancient Singapura on a relief in Fort Canning Park, Singapore.
A depiction of the legendary strongman Badang lifting the Singapore Stone at National Day Parade 2016.
Carved mural on a wall in Fort Canning Park depicting activities which may have occurred in 14th-15th century Singapore.
An artist's impression of Parameswara, the last king of Singapura.
14th-century gold armlets and rings in East Javanese style, found at Fort Canning Hill, Singapore, displayed in the Singapore History Gallery of the National Museum of Singapore

The settlement developed in the 13th or 14th century and rose from a small Srivijayan trading outpost into a centre of international trade in the Malay Archipelago, India and the Yuan Dynasty.

It was however claimed by two regional powers at that time, Ayuthaya from the north and Majapahit from the south.

Part of Mao Kun map from Wubei Zhi which is based on the early 15th century navigation maps of Zheng He showing Temasek (淡馬錫) at the top left.

Temasek

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Early recorded name of a settlement on the site of modern Singapore.

Early recorded name of a settlement on the site of modern Singapore.

Part of Mao Kun map from Wubei Zhi which is based on the early 15th century navigation maps of Zheng He showing Temasek (淡馬錫) at the top left.

Another suggestion is that it may be a reference to a king of Srivijaya, Maharaja Tan ma sa na ho.

By the 14th century, the Srivijaya empire had declined, and the Majapahit and Ayutthaya Kingdom became dominant in the region and alternatively made claim to Temasek.

Kehuripan was the predecessor of Janggala and Panjalu (Kadiri)

Kahuripan

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11th-century Javanese Hindu-Buddhist kingdom with its capital located around the estuarine of Brantas River valley in East Java.

11th-century Javanese Hindu-Buddhist kingdom with its capital located around the estuarine of Brantas River valley in East Java.

Kehuripan was the predecessor of Janggala and Panjalu (Kadiri)
King Airlangga depicted as Vishnu mounting Garuda, found in Belahan temple.
Stone sculptures at Gaprang in Kediri
Nganjuk bronze figures depicting Boddhisattvas, late 10th to mid 11th century originated from the Kahuripan kingdom period in East Java.
Statue of Lakshmi, Belahan temple, Mount Penanggungan.
Gunung Gangsir temple, possibly built during Kahuripan kingdom and renovated in later Majapahit period.

The kingdom was short-lived, only spanning the period between 1019 and 1045, and Airlangga was the only raja of the kingdom, which was built out of the rubble of the Kingdom of Mataram after the Srivijaya invasion.

Later in 14th to 15th century, the former kingdom was recognised as one of Majapahit's 12 provinces.

The territory of Sunda Kingdom

Sunda Kingdom

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Sundanese Hindu kingdom located in the western portion of the island of Java from 669 to around 1579, covering the area of present-day Banten, Jakarta, West Java, and the western part of Central Java.

Sundanese Hindu kingdom located in the western portion of the island of Java from 669 to around 1579, covering the area of present-day Banten, Jakarta, West Java, and the western part of Central Java.

The territory of Sunda Kingdom
The word Sunda written in Sundanese script
Batutulis inscription (dated 1533), in Bogor, commemorate the great King of Sunda Sri Baduga Maharaja (rule 1482-1521).
The Sundanese royal party arrived at the port of Hujung Galuh by Junk Sassana, a type of Javanese junk, which also incorporates Chinese techniques, such as using iron nails alongside wooden dowels, the construction of watertight bulkhead, and addition of central rudder.
Sundanese traditional house with Julang Ngapak roof in Garut circa 1920s. It was built on poles and having a thatched roof, as described in a 12th-century Chinese source.
Old map of Java still thought that land of Sunda in the west is separated from the rest of Java island. Here the capital of Sunda is called Daio which refer to Dayeuh Pakuan Pajajaran
The ruin of Bojongmenje Hindu temple in Priangan highlands, estimated was built in the 7th century.
Citarum River separates Sunda and Galuh
Cangkuang Hindu temple a shrine for Shiva, dated from the 8th century the Galuh Kingdom.
Sanghyang Tapak inscription
One of Kawali inscriptions
Statue of a Hindu god from Talaga near Kuningan, West Java, dated from the Sunda Kingdom.
Keraton Kasepuhan of Cirebon. By 1482, the Sunda kingdom lost its important eastern port of Cirebon.
The port of Sunda Kelapa, the cradle of Jakarta. For centuries it was the royal port of Sunda Kingdom serving the capital Dayeuh Pakuan Pajajaran 60 kilometres inland to the south until it fell to Demak and Cirebon forces in 1527.
The Port of Banten in the 16th century. The Islamic Sultanate of Banten was responsible for the demise of Hindu Sunda Kingdom, and supplant it as the dominant polity in western parts of Java in the following centuries.
Hindu Brahmin's ritual objects, including bronze bell and holy water container from Kawali, the historic capital of Galuh Kingdom.
Location of Pakuan Pajajaran copied from book "Kabudayaan Sunda Zaman Pajajaran" Part 2", 2005
Makuta Binokasih Sanghyang Paké, the royal crown of Sunda kingdom. After the fall of Pajajaran to Banten, the crown was evacuated to Sumedang Larang and become their regalia.
A Sundanese woman retrieving rice from a leuit, Sundanese economy mainly rely on rice agriculture
The statue of Shiva Mahadeva from Cibodas village, Cicalengka Subdistrict, Bandung Regency, West Java. Possibly from the Sunda Kingdom period 8th to 9th century.
A bronze statue of Hindu god Shiva discovered in Talaga near Kuningan, West Java. Sunda kingdom period, circa 14th century.
Padrão of Sunda Kalapa (1522), a stone pillar with a cross of the Order of Christ commemorating a treaty between Portuguese Kingdom and Hindu Sunda Kingdom, at National Museum of Indonesia, Jakarta.
Lontar palm-leaf manuscript written in Sundanese

The specific mention of Majapahit, Malacca and Demak, allow us to date the writing of the story in the 15th century, probably the latter part of this century, or the early 16th century at the latest.

According to this source, the port of Sunda was under Srivijaya mandala domination.

Janggala and Panjalu (Kediri) kingdom, later unified as Kediri kingdom

Kediri Kingdom

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Hindu-Buddhist in Indonesia Javanese Kingdom based in East Java from 1042 to around 1222.

Hindu-Buddhist in Indonesia Javanese Kingdom based in East Java from 1042 to around 1222.

Janggala and Panjalu (Kediri) kingdom, later unified as Kediri kingdom
Airlangga's embodiment statue as Lord Vishnu riding Garuda, found in Belahan, collection of Trowulan Museum, East Java.
Statue of Vishnu. Kediri, East Java, circa 12th–13th century
Srivijaya and Kediri around 12th to early 13th century AD
Vajrasattva. Eastern Java, Kediri period, 10th–11th century CE, bronze, 19.5 x 11.5 cm
Ganesha and a fragment of a temple at the residency in Kediri, 1866-1867

The name "Daha" was used in later Majapahit period, as the seat of rival court of Trowulan.

The Kediri kingdom existed alongside the Srivijaya empire based in Sumatra throughout 11th to 12th-century, and seems to have maintained trade relations with China and to some extent India.

The Roman Empire at its territorial greatest extent in 117 AD, the time of Trajan's death (with its vassals in pink)

Empire

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A "political unit" made up of several territories and peoples, "usually created by conquest, and divided between a dominant center and subordinate peripheries".

A "political unit" made up of several territories and peoples, "usually created by conquest, and divided between a dominant center and subordinate peripheries".

The Roman Empire at its territorial greatest extent in 117 AD, the time of Trajan's death (with its vassals in pink)
Diachronic map of the main empires of the modern era (1492–1945).
Map showing the four empires of Eurasia in the 2nd century AD
All areas of the world that were once part of the Portuguese Empire. The Portuguese established in the early 16th century together with the Spanish Empire the first global empire and trade network.
Al Udeid Air Base in Qatar

In the 7th century, Maritime Southeast Asia witnessed the rise of a Buddhist thallasocracy, the Srivijaya Empire, which thrived for 600 years and was succeeded by the Hindu-Buddhist Majapahit Empire that ruled from the 13th to 15th centuries.

Khmer Empire

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Term used by historians to refer to Cambodia from the 9th to the 15th centuries, when the nation was a Hindu-Buddhist empire in Southeast Asia.

Term used by historians to refer to Cambodia from the 9th to the 15th centuries, when the nation was a Hindu-Buddhist empire in Southeast Asia.

Expansion of the Khmer Empire, 802-1203
Archers mounted on elephants
The Khmer Empire around 900 CE
The pyramid of Koh Ker. Koh Ker was briefly the capital of the Khmer Empire
The Khmer Empire at its height of territorial expansion in 1203 CE after the conquest of Champa
11th-century Cambodian sculpture of the Buddha
Seated Buddha from the 12th century
A satellite image of Angkor, the dried East Baray suggests the environmental changes in the region
Reconstruction of Prasat Bayon, the center of Angkor Thom.
Khmer market on Bayon
Women of the royal court
A naval battle against Cham, Bayon
Bas-relief depicting home life, Bayon
Bas-relief depicting childbirth, Bayon
A bas-relief depicting Khmer naval soldiers using bow and arrows. Located at the Bayon(12th/13th century)
Helmets, weapons and armory of the Khmer Empire's military as depicted at Angkor Wat. Depicted from French explorer Henri Mouhot's book.
Cockfighting on Bayon
A bas-relief depicting people playing a chess-like game
Vishnu, Baphuon style
The Khmer Empire's bridge of Spean Praptos, a corbel bridge in Siem Reap Province, Cambodia.
Phimai, the site of an ancient Khmer city of Vimayapura
Khmer soldier on the left fights against his Cham rival on the right. The Cham of Champa were the main rivals of the Khmer Empire. At the bas-reliefs in the Bayon temple, the Cham are always seen wearing helmets in the shape of Magnolia champaca flower.
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After learning of Suryavarman's alliance with Rajendra Chola, the Tambralinga kingdom requested aid from the Srivijaya King Sangrama Vijayatungavarman.

A Javanese source, the Nagarakretagama canto 15, composed in 1365 in the Majapahit Empire, claimed Java had established diplomatic relations with Kambuja (Cambodia) together with Syangkayodhyapura (Ayutthaya), Dharmmanagari (Negara Sri Dharmaraja), Rajapura (Ratchaburi) and Singhanagari (Songkla), Marutma (Martaban or Mottama, Southern Myanmar), Champa and Yawana (Annam).