Majapahit and Related Topics

Gamelan

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Traditional ensemble music of the Javanese, Sundanese, and Balinese peoples of Indonesia, made up predominantly of percussive instruments.

Musicians performing musical ensemble, The 8th century bas-relief of Borobudur Temple, Central Java, Indonesia

A gamelan player playing bonang. Gamelan Yogyakarta style during a Javanese wedding.

Gamelan is mentioned in the Kakawin Nagarakertagama in a palm-leaf manuscript called lontar that was written by Mpu Prapanca in 1365 AD. A collection of National Library of Indonesia in Jakarta

The court of the Sultan of Yogyakarta, c. 1876. Performance of Bedhaya Sacred Dance accompanied by Javanese Gamelan Ensemble

Various Javanese musical instrument in Gamelan Salindro, The History of Java by Thomas Stamford Raffles (1781-1826).

Javanese Gamelan Munggang (one of sacred gamelans) being played (as part of ritual) in Surakarta Sunanate, Central Java, Indonesia, 2000

A sindhen is singing a Javanese song accompanied by Gamelan ensemble

Javanese Gamelan in Asian Civilisations Museum, Singapore

Balinese Gamelan in Museu de la Música de Barcelona, Spain

K.P.H. Notoprojo, a famous Indonesian Javanese Gamelan and Rebab player, between 1945 and 1955

The three major indigenous genres of gong-chime music prevalent in Southeast Asia: this includes the Gamelan of western Indonesia; the kulintang of the southern Philippines, eastern Indonesia, and eastern Malaysia; and the piphat of Thailand, Cambodia, Laos and Burma

Pande (Gamelan Maker) is burning Gong in Besalen in Central Java, Indonesia

Pandes (Gamelan Makers) are forging a gamelan instrument called Kempul (small hanging gong) after burning it, Central Java, Indonesia

Gamelan is used by patients at Sumber Porong Mental Hospital in Java, between 1902 and 1922

Michael Tenzer played Balinese Gamelan in 1992

Gamelan Degung Ensemble performance for the recording at the Radio Republik Indonesia studio, Jakarta, on 24 April 1966

K.R.T. Rahayu Supanggah, one of gamelan maestros. He introduced gamelan to almost the entire world, actively researching, writing, training, creating compositions, teaching, and performing

Javanese gamelan being played in Keraton Yogyakarta, Indonesia, on 25 October 2009

thumb|Wayang Kulit performance with Gamelan accompaniment in the context of the appointment of the throne for Hamengkubuwono VIII's fifteen years in Yogyakarta, between 1900 and 1940

A gamelan ensemble with a group of singers (Sindhen (Female) and Gerong (Male) at the Mangkunegaran Royal Palace in Surakarta, Central Java, between 1870 and 1892

A Gamelan Ensemble was played to accompany the inauguration of the Prince of the late Paku Alam VII at Pakualaman Palace, Yogyakarta, Indonesia, before 1949

A Dalang (Puppeteer), Sindhen (singer) and Wiyaga (gamelan musicians) with Javanese Gamelan at Keraton Yogyakarta the Sultan's Palace in Yogyakarta - Around 1885

Gamelan orchestra in East Java, late 19th century

Balinese Gamelan Performance (part of the ritual) in a Temple, Bali, Circa 1920

A balinese dancer performed Kebyar duduk dance accompanied by a Balinese gamelan Ensemble, Bali, Indonesia, before 1952

Barong dance performance accompanied by a gamelan ensemble, Bali, Indonesia, before 1959

Balinese girls practiced legong dance accompanied by gamelan in Ubud, Bali, Dutch east Indies, between 1910 and 1930

Balinese Gamelan in a village near Sukawati, Bali after the Cremation Ceremony on 21 September 1922

Balinese gamelan being played in Kuta, Bali, Indonesia, on 23 September 2010

Sundanese Gamelan with a dancer and Wayang Golek in a hut in Cibodas Botanical Garden, West Java on 28 September 1904

A Gamelan Ensemble and Dance show party for the Regent of Preanger (Now Parahyangan) West Java, between 1880 and 1920

Sundanese Gamelan ensemble of Bandung's Regent, West Java, Dutch east Indies, between 1857 and 1890

A gamelan laras slendro Si Ketuyung (sacred gamelan), a set of gamelan instruments made in 1748, a legacy of Sultan Sepuh IV, Keraton Kasepuhan, Cirebon, Indonesia

Gamelan Degung Ensemble, This photo was taken at Annual Exhibition in Java. between 1910 and 1930

Sundanese Gamelan Degung Performance from West Java, Indonesia, on 6 November 2007

Sekaten, Gamelan Sekaten Kanjeng Kiai Guntur Madu (One of Some Javanese Sacred Gamelan) is usually beaten every day for a week during the Sekaten celebration at the Keraton Yogyakarta. The community was very enthusiastic about listening to the strains of the heirloom gamelan, on 26 November 2017

Melasti, a self-purification ceremony to welcome Nyepi by all Hindus in Bali. This ceremony is held on the beach with the aim of purifying oneself from all bad deeds.

Galungan, a Balinese holiday celebrating the victory of dharma over adharma in Besakih temple complex in Karangasem, Bali, Indonesia

Tingalan Dalem Jumenengan, The 40th Royal coronations anniversary of Susoehoenan Pakubuwono X in Surakarta Sunanate.

Ngaben, the Hindu funeral ceremony of Bali, Indonesia. It is performed to release the soul of a dead person.

Wedding Ceremony, Javanese Wedding ceremony in Java

Legong, Legong Kraton Dance (Legong of the Palace) in Ubud Palace, Bali, Indonesia. In the background, the Gamelan orchestra accompanies the performance, on 23 August 2008

Bedhaya dance performance at the wedding of Hoesein Djajadiningrat and Partini in the palace of Prang Wedono (Mangkoe Negoro VII), the father of the bride, at Solo, Java, in January 1921

Jaipong, The Sundanese Jaipongan Langit Biru dance performance in West Java Pavilion, Taman Mini Indonesia Indah, Jakarta

Balinese Ramayana dance drama, performed in Sarasvati Garden in Ubud, Bali

King Duryodana in Wayang wong performance in Taman Budaya Rahmat Saleh, Semarang, Jawa Tengah, Indonesia

Ramayana Ballet Performance near Prambanan Temple complex in Yogyakarta, Indonesia

thumb|Dalang (Puppet master), Sindhen (traditional Javanese singer), and Wiyaga (Gamelan musicians) in Wayang Kulit Show in Java

thumb|Wayang Golek Performance in Yogyakarta

Wayang Beber performance of the desa Gelaran at the home of Dr. Wahidin Soedirohoesodo at Yogyakarta in the middle Dr. GAJ Hazeu, Dutch East Indies, in 1902

Kethoprak (Javanese popular drama depicting legends, historical or pseudo-historical events). Performance by Kethoprak Tobong Kelana Bhakti Budaya, Bantul, Yogyakarta, Indonesia

Ludruk performance, East Java, Indonesia

Sandiwara performance, West Java, Indonesia

thumb|javanese poetry, Sindhens performance with Gamelan Ensemble on a ceremony in Java, Indonesia, on 5 November 2015

tembang sunda, Sundanase singer sings Sundanese song in a festival

Balinese women gamelan Gong Kebyar in Balinese Cultural Festival, Denpasar, Bali, Indonesia, on 17 June 2013

Gamelan performance at Borobudur International Performances and Art Festival 2018

Gamelan players at Balinese art festival 2018

Kyai Barleyan, a Javanese gamelan at Oberlin College in Ohio. Acquired in 1970, it is believed to be the third-oldest gamelan in use in the United States.

Gamelan Son of Lion, a Javanese-style iron American gamelan based in New York City that is devoted to new music, playing in a loft in SoHo, Manhattan, United States in 2007

Sundanese Gamelan Degung being played in Museo Nacional de las Culturas Mexico, Indra Swara Gamelan Group, on 2 April 2018

Golek Ayun-Ayun Dance performance accompanied by Gamelan Ensemble at Bangsal Sri Manganti Keraton Yogyakarta.

The Sundanese Jaipongan dance performance accompanied by Gamelan Ensemble in West Java Pavilion, Taman Mini Indonesia Indah, Jakarta.

Gamelan ensemble (or gambelan in Balinese term) accompanying barong performance (Bali lion dance) at Garuda Wisnu Kencana cultural complex, Bali, Indonesia.

Telek (masked) dance accompanied by Gamelan ensemble in Bali, between 1950 and 1957.

Wayang wong performance accompanied by Gamelan in Java, between 1890 and 1916.

A gamelan ensemble consisting of children in a temple complex in Bali, between 1910 and 1920.

Children practiced dance with gamelan at Kebun Dalem Semarang, Dutch east Indies, circa 1867.

A gamelan set in an exhibition at the museum of the Royal Batavian Society of Arts and Sciences (Now, National Museum of Indonesia), Batavia, circa 1896.

Gamelan Kaduk Manis Rengga (sacred gamelan) from Kraton Surakarta, Java, 2003.

A wayang klithik (flat woodden puppet) performance with a gamelan orchestra in Ngandong, Java, in 1918.

Gamelan Sekati (One of Some Javanese Sacred Gamelan in the Keraton Yogyakarta) is being played to accompany Sekaten Ceremony in front of Kauman Great Mosque in Yogyakarta, Indonesia, on 27 April 2004.

Gamelan Nyi Asep Mangsa, Indra Swara, México, on 27 March 2015.

A Gamelan Ensemble accompanies Wayang Kulit Show (the Indonesian Shadow Play) in Java, circa 1870.

The instruments developed into their current form during the Majapahit Empire.

A Minangkabau bride and groom, the bride is wearing a Suntiang crown

Minangkabau people

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Austronesian ethnic group native to the Minangkabau Highlands of West Sumatra, Indonesia.

A statue believed to be Adityawarman, founder of Pagaruyung kingdom, a royal Minangkabau dinasty.

Tuanku Imam Bonjol, a leader in the Padri War

Minangkabau chiefs, picture taken between 1910 and 1930.

The village of Pariangan, located on the slopes of Mount Marapi, is in folklore said to be the first Minangkabau village.

Minangkabau women clad in traditional Minang costumes.

Minangkabau men in traditional Minangkabau clothes.

Minangkabau knife karambit fencing dancers (Tukang Mancak) on the west coast of Sumatra, 1897.

Women carrying platters of food to a ceremony

Minangkabau songket, the pattern in the lower third representing bamboo sprouts.

Rumah gadang in the Pandai Sikek village of West Sumatra, with two rice barns (rangkiang) in front

Location ethnic groups of Sumatra, the Minangkabau is shown in light and dark olive.

Mohammad Hatta, Indonesian nationalist and first vice-president of Indonesia.

Adityawarman, a follower of Tantric Buddhism with ties to the Singhasari and Majapahit kingdoms of Java, is believed to have founded a kingdom in the Minangkabau highlands at Pagaruyung and ruled between 1347 and 1375.

Sulawesi

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One of the four Greater Sunda Islands.

Stencils of right hands in Pettakere Cave in Maros are among the oldest known examples of human artwork

Toraja burial site. Tau-tau, the statue representing the buried people, can be seen in niches on the cliff.

The colorful bark of Eucalyptus deglupta

The north Sulawesi babirusa is endemic to Sulawesi.

15 species of viviparous halfbeaks are endemic to Sulawesi, including 12 Nomorhamphus (depicted), Dermogenys orientalis, D. vogti, and Tondanichthys kottelati.

Orange delight shrimp (Caridina loehae) from Sulawesi.

Bunaken Island seen from Manado Tua island.

Tandako dancers and a musician in Pasere Maloku, Sulawesi.

Tandako pajogé dancers from Pasere Maloku, Celebes (now Sulawesi)

Padjogé dancers in Maros, Sulawesi, in the 1870s.

Tandako pajogé dancers and musicians in Gorontalo, North Celebes, circa 1870s.

In 1367, several identified polities located on the island were mentioned in the Javanese manuscript Nagarakretagama dated from the Majapahit period.

Kawi language

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Oldest attested phase of the Javanese language.

Old Javanese was not static, and its usage covered a period of approximately 500 years – from the Sukabumi (Kediri, East Java) inscription until the founding of the Majapahit empire in 1292.

Regreg War

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The Regreg War (often erroneously called the Paregreg) was a civil war that took place in 1404-1406 within the Javanese empire of Majapahit.

A Chinese-Javanese hybrid junk, drawn by van Linschoten in 1596.

Kidung Sunda

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Middle-Javanese kidung of probable Balinese provenance.

A modern artist impression of Gajah Mada

In this poem, the story of king Hayam Wuruk of Majapahit who was looking for a bride to be, is narrated.

Austronesian peoples

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The Austronesian peoples, sometimes referred to as Austronesian-speaking peoples, are a large group of peoples in Taiwan, Maritime Southeast Asia, Micronesia, coastal New Guinea, Island Melanesia, Polynesia, and Madagascar that speak Austronesian languages.

Skulls representing Johann Friedrich Blumenbach's "five races" in De Generis Humani Varietate Nativa (1795). The Tahitian skull labelled "O-taheitae" represented what he called the "Malay race"

The New Physiognomy map (1889) printed by the Fowler & Wells Company depicting Johann Friedrich Blumenbach's five human races. The region inhabited by the "Malay race" is shown enclosed in dotted lines. Like in most 19th century sources, Islander Melanesians are excluded. Taiwan, which was annexed by the Qing Dynasty in the 17th century is also excluded.

Distribution of the Austronesian languages (Blust, 1999)

Paraw sailboats from Boracay, Philippines. Outrigger canoes and crab claw sails are hallmarks of the Austronesian maritime culture.

Coconuts in Rangiroa island in the Tuamotus, French Polynesia, a typical island landscape in Austronesia. Coconuts are native to tropical Asia, and were spread as canoe plants to the Pacific Islands and Madagascar by Austronesians.

Extent of contemporary Austronesia and possible further migrations and contact (Blench, 2009)

Map showing the distribution of the Austronesian language family (light rose pink). It roughly corresponds to the distribution of all the Austronesian peoples.

Samoan man carrying two containers over his shoulder

The Javanese people of Indonesia are the largest Austronesian ethnic group.

Representation of the coastal migration model, with the indication of the later development of mitochondrial haplogroups

Coastlines of Island Southeast Asia, New Guinea, and Australia during the last glacial period

Aeta fishermen in an outrigger canoe in Luzon, Philippines (c. 1899)

Possible language family homelands and the spread of rice into Southeast Asia (ca. 5,500–2,500 BP). The approximate coastlines during the early Holocene are shown in lighter blue.

Yue statue of a tattooed Baiyue man in the Zhejiang Provincial Museum (c. 3rd century BCE)

Suggested early migration route of early Austronesians into and out of Taiwan based on ancient and modern mtDNA data. This hypothesis assumes the Sino-Austronesian grouping, a minority view among linguists. (Ko et al., 2014)

Proposed routes of Austroasiatic and Austronesian migrations into Indonesia (Simanjuntak, 2017)

Proposed genesis of Daic languages and their relation with Austronesians (Blench, 2018)

Early waves of migration to Taiwan proposed by Roger Blench (2014)

Colorized photograph of a Tsou warrior from Taiwan wearing traditional clothing (pre-World War II)

Map showing the migration of the Austronesians

Hōkūlea, a modern replica of a Polynesian double-hulled voyaging canoe, is an example of a catamaran, another of the early sailing innovations of Austronesians

Proposed migration waves from Sundaland in the Late Pleistocene based on mtDNA data; and later "back-migrations" into Island Southeast Asia during the early to mid-Holocene expansion of rice-farming Austronesians from mainland southern China. The extent of the coastlines of Sundaland during the last ice age is presented in light shading; while modern coastlines after the rise of sea levels in the Late Pleistocene to mid-Holocene is in dark shading. (Brandão et al., 2016)

Queen Liliuokalani, the last sovereign monarch of the Kingdom of Hawaii

Succession of forms in the development of the Austronesian boat

Austronesian proto-historic and historic maritime trade network in the Indian Ocean

Sama-Bajau villages are typically built directly on shallow water

The raised bale houses of the Ifugao people with capped house posts are believed to be derived from the designs of traditional granaries

Tongkonan houses of the Toraja people with the distinctive saddleback roofs reminiscent of boats

Bai meeting house of the Palauan people with colourfully decorated gables

Cast of a Lapita red-slipped earthenware shard from the Santa Cruz Islands (c. 1000 BCE), showing dentate-stamped, circle-stamped, and cross-in-circle decorations. The latter two are shared elements from Neolithic red-slipped pottery from the Nagsabaran Site in the Philippines.

Hand stencils in the "Tree of Life" cave painting in Gua Tewet, Kalimantan, Indonesia

Watu Molindo ("the entertainer stone"), one of the megaliths in Bada Valley, Central Sulawesi, Indonesia, usually found near megalithic stone vats known as kalamba.

Toraja megaliths memorializing the deceased in Sulawesi, Indonesia

Boats and human figures in a cave painting in the Niah National Park of Sarawak, Malaysia; an example of the Austronesian Painting Traditions (APT)

Petroglyphs in Vanuatu with the concentric circles and swirling designs characteristic of the Austronesian Engraving Style (AES)

Haligi pillars from the Latte period of Guam, these served as supports for raised buildings

The ruins of Nan Madol, a stone city built on artificial islets in Pohnpei

A rai stone, large stone discs used as currency in Yap

A marae sacred site in Raiatea, French Polynesia

Hawaiian petroglyph depicting a poi dog (īlio)

Carving of Rongo, the Māori deity (atua) of kūmara, from Taranaki, North Island, New Zealand

A 1782 illustration of a heiau temple in Hawaii

Elder Tayal women from Taiwan with facial tattoos

Teeth filing on a Mentawai man in the Mentawai Islands, Dutch East Indies, c. 1938

Tablet B of rongorongo, an undeciphered system of glyphs from Rapa Nui

An example of the abundant petroglyphs in Orongo, Rapa Nui associated with the tangata manu cult of Makemake. Rongorongo does not appear in any of these petroglyphs.

The Talang Tuo inscription, a 7th-century Srivijaya stele featuring Old Malay written in a derivative of the Pallava script

Page from Doctrina Cristiana Española Y Tagala (1593) featuring the Baybayin script alongside the Latin alphabet

Wharenui meeting house of the Māori people

Bahay kubo of the Filipinos. Also known as Payag in Visayan.

Kubing jaw harps, flutes, and a kagul slit drum from the Philippines

Karinding jaw harps of the Sundanese people, Indonesia

Sapeh, traditional lutes of the Orang Ulu people of Malaysia

Atingting kon, wooden slit drums from Vanuatu

A kanaka maoli (native) from Hawaii performing the hula

Traditional song and dance at a funeral in Tana Toraja, Sulawesi, Indonesia

Ramayana Ballet, traditional theatre dance from Java, Indonesia

Gending Sriwijaya, traditional dance from Palembang, Indonesia

A Minahasan Kabasaran war dancer from Tomohon, North Sulawesi, Indonesia

Hudoq, traditional dance from Kalimantan, Indonesia

Aloalo funerary pole of the Sakalava people of Madagascar

Adu zatua ancestor carvings of the Nias people of western Indonesia

Taotao carvings of anito ancestor spirits from the Ifugao people, Philippines

Ki'i carving at Puʻuhonua o Hōnaunau, Hawaii

Māori poupou from the Ruato tomb of Rotorua

Toraja tau tau (wooden statue of the deceased) in South Sulawesi, Indonesia

Balinese small familial house shrines to honor the households' ancestors in Bali, Indonesia

The adoption of Hindu statecraft model allowed the creation of Indianized kingdoms such as Tarumanagara, Champa, Butuan, Langkasuka, Melayu, Srivijaya, Medang Mataram, Majapahit, and Bali.