A report on Plasmodium vivax

Protozoal parasite and a human pathogen.

- Plasmodium vivax

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Tafenoquine

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Medication used to prevent and to treat malaria.

Medication used to prevent and to treat malaria.

With respect to acute malaria, it is used together with other medications to prevent relapse by Plasmodium vivax.

Histogram of period (in seconds) between each hiccup in a sequence of 50 samples in about 10 minutes. Mean: 11.40 s. Median: 10.715 s. Standard deviation: 2.88 s. Data set ranges from 6.28 s to 21.36 s.

Hiccup

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Involuntary contraction (myoclonic jerk) of the diaphragm that may repeat several times per minute.

Involuntary contraction (myoclonic jerk) of the diaphragm that may repeat several times per minute.

Histogram of period (in seconds) between each hiccup in a sequence of 50 samples in about 10 minutes. Mean: 11.40 s. Median: 10.715 s. Standard deviation: 2.88 s. Data set ranges from 6.28 s to 21.36 s.

Although no clear pathophysiological mechanism has been described, hiccups is known to have been the initial symptom of Plasmodium vivax malaria in at least one documented case.

Sulfadoxine/pyrimethamine

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Combination medication used to treat malaria.

Combination medication used to treat malaria.

The combination is considered to be more effective in treating malaria caused by Plasmodium falciparum than that caused by P. vivax, for which chloroquine is considered more effective, though in the absence of a species-specific diagnosis, the sulfadoxine-pyrimethamine combination may be indicated.

Glucose-6-phosphate dehydrogenase

Glucose-6-phosphate dehydrogenase deficiency

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Most common enzyme deficiency worldwide, is an inborn error of metabolism that predisposes to red blood cell breakdown.

Most common enzyme deficiency worldwide, is an inborn error of metabolism that predisposes to red blood cell breakdown.

Glucose-6-phosphate dehydrogenase
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Both variants are believed to stem from a strongly protective effect against Plasmodium falciparum and Plasmodium vivax malaria.

Artesunate

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Medication used to treat malaria.

Medication used to treat malaria.

Artesunate + sulfadoxine/pyrimethamine for treatment of P. vivax is not recommended due to high rates of resistance.

Second World War poster "Keep out malaria mosquitoes repair your torn screens". U.S. Public Health Service, 1941–45

History of malaria

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The history of malaria stretches from its prehistoric origin as a zoonotic disease in the primates of Africa through to the 21st century.

The history of malaria stretches from its prehistoric origin as a zoonotic disease in the primates of Africa through to the 21st century.

Second World War poster "Keep out malaria mosquitoes repair your torn screens". U.S. Public Health Service, 1941–45
The mosquito and the fly in this Baltic amber necklace are between 40 and 60 million years old.
Cinchona tree by Theodor Zwinger, 1696
Map of the United States showing the distribution of deaths from malaria. Census of 1880.
In 1880, Charles Louis Alphonse Laveran observed pigmented parasites and the exflagellation of male gametocytes.
The notebook in which Ronald Ross first described pigmented malaria parasites in stomach tissues of an Anopheles mosquito, 20 and 21 August 1897
Protocol for the synthesis of Resochin, Hans Andersag 1934
Artemisia annua being grown as a field crop in West Virginia for the production of artemisinin, 2005
Pyrethrum field (Chrysanthemum cinerariaefolium) Lari Hills, Nairobi, Kenya, in 2010
Original preparation of quinine acetate by Pelletier. circa 1820.

P. vivax, another malarial Plasmodium species among the six that infect humans, also likely originated in African gorillas and chimpanzees.

Trophozoites of P. ovale in thin blood smears. Schüffner's dots can be seen.

Schüffner's dots

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Trophozoites of P. ovale in thin blood smears. Schüffner's dots can be seen.

Schüffner's dots refers to a hematological finding that is associated with malaria, exclusively found in infections caused by Plasmodium ovale or Plasmodium vivax.

Julius Wagner-Jauregg with his signature

Julius Wagner-Jauregg

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Austrian physician, who won the Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine in 1927, and is the first psychiatrist to have done so.

Austrian physician, who won the Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine in 1927, and is the first psychiatrist to have done so.

Julius Wagner-Jauregg with his signature
Wagner-Jauregg family arms, granted in 1883.
Wagner-Jauregg (center right in black jacket) watching a transfusion from a malaria patient (rear of the group) to a neurosyphilis victim (center) in 1934

Thus, from 1917 to the mid 1940s, malaria induced by the least aggressive parasite, Plasmodium vivax, was used as treatment for tertiary syphilis because it produced prolonged and high fevers (a form of pyrotherapy).

Tree of life showing vertical and horizontal gene transfers

Horizontal gene transfer

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Movement of genetic material between unicellular and/or multicellular organisms other than by the ("vertical") transmission of DNA from parent to offspring (reproduction).

Movement of genetic material between unicellular and/or multicellular organisms other than by the ("vertical") transmission of DNA from parent to offspring (reproduction).

Tree of life showing vertical and horizontal gene transfers
A speciation event produces orthologs of a gene in the two daughter species. A horizontal gene transfer event from one species to another adds a xenolog of the gene to the receiving genome.
1: Donor bacteria 2: Bacteria who will receive the gene 3: The red portion represents the gene that will be transferred. Transformation in bacteria happens in a certain environment.
1: Donor bacteria cell (F+ cell) 2: Bacteria that receives the plasmid (F- cell) 3: Plasmid that will be moved to the other bacteria 4: Pilus. Conjugation in bacteria using a sex pilus; then the bacteria that received the plasmid can go give it to other bacteria as well.
Before it is transformed, a bacterium is susceptible to antibiotics. A plasmid can be inserted when the bacteria is under stress, and be incorporated into the bacterial DNA creating antibiotic resistance. When the plasmids are prepared they are inserted into the bacterial cell by either making pores in the plasma membrane with temperature extremes and chemical treatments, or making it semi permeable through the process of electrophoresis, in which electric currents create the holes in the membrane. After conditions return to normal the holes in the membrane close and the plasmids are trapped inside the bacteria where they become part of the genetic material and their genes are expressed by the bacteria.

The malaria pathogen Plasmodium vivax acquired genetic material from humans that might help facilitate its long stay in the body.