A report on Standard language

Language variety that has undergone substantial codification of grammar and usage, although occasionally the term refers to the entirety of a language that includes a standardized form as one of its varieties.

- Standard language

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Usus

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Common usage of linguistic units (words, idioms, forms) in a particular speech community.

Common usage of linguistic units (words, idioms, forms) in a particular speech community.

It may be used as one of the criteria of laying out prescriptive norms for standard language usage.

Urdu

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Indo-Aryan language spoken chiefly in South Asia.

Indo-Aryan language spoken chiefly in South Asia.

The proportion of people with Urdu as their mother tongue in each Pakistani District as of the 2017 Pakistan Census
A trilingual signboard in Arabic, English and Urdu in the UAE. The Urdu sentence is not a direct translation of the English ("Your beautiful city invites you to preserve it.") It says, "apné shahar kī Khūbsūrtīi ko barqarār rakhié, or "Please preserve the beauty of your city."
A multilingual New Delhi railway station board. The Urdu and Hindi texts both read as: naī dillī.
Urdu and Hindi on a road sign in India. The Urdu version is a direct transliteration of the English; the Hindi is a part transliteration ("parcel" and "rail") and part translation "karyalay" and "arakshan kendra"
The phrase zubān-e-Urdū-e-muʿallā ("the language of the exalted camp") written in Nastaʿlīq script
Lashkari Zabān title in Naskh script
The Urdu Nastaʿliq alphabet, with names in the Devanagari and Latin alphabets
An English-Urdu bilingual sign at the archaeological site of Sirkap, near Taxila. The Urdu says: (right to left) دو سروں والے عقاب کی شبيہ والا مندر, dō sarōñ wālé u'qāb kī shabīh wāla mandir. "The temple with the image of the eagle with two heads."

Apart from religious associations, the differences are largely restricted to the standard forms: Standard Urdu is conventionally written in the Nastaliq style of the Persian alphabet and relies heavily on Persian and Arabic as a source for technical and literary vocabulary, whereas Standard Hindi is conventionally written in Devanāgarī and draws on Sanskrit.

Bosnia and Herzegovina

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Country at the crossroads of south and southeast Europe, located in the Balkans.

Country at the crossroads of south and southeast Europe, located in the Balkans.

Iron Age cult carriage from Banjani, near Sokolac
Mogorjelo, ancient Roman suburban Villa Rustica from the 4th century, near Čapljina
Hval's Codex, illustrated Slavic manuscript from medieval Bosnia
Bosnia in the Middle Ages spanning the Banate of Bosnia and the succeeding Kingdom of Bosnia
Gazi Husrev-beg Mosque in Sarajevo, dating from 1531
Austro-Hungarian troops enter Sarajevo, 1878
The Assassination of Archduke Franz Ferdinand of Austria and Sophie, Duchess of Hohenberg in Sarajevo, by Gavrilo Princip
"Keep/Protect Yugoslavia" (Čuvajte Jugoslaviju), a variant of the alleged last words of King Alexander I, in an illustration of Yugoslav peoples dancing the kolo
The railway bridge over the Neretva River in Jablanica, twice destroyed during the 1943 Case White offensive
Eternal flame memorial to military and civilian World War II victims in Sarajevo
Bosnia and Herzegovina's flag while part of the Socialist Federal Republic of Yugoslavia
Dissolution of Yugoslavia
The Executive Council Building burns after being struck by tank fire during the Siege of Sarajevo, 1992
Tuzla government building burning after anti-government clashes on 7 February 2014
Bosnia and Herzegovina consists of the Federation of Bosnia and Herzegovina (FBiH), Republika Srpska (RS) and Brčko District (BD)
Estimated development of real GDP per capita of Bosnia and Herzegovina, since 1952
Proportional diagram of Bosnia and Herzegovina exports as of 2019
The Central Bank of Bosnia and Herzegovina in Sarajevo
Apron view of the Sarajevo International Airport
University of Sarajevo's Faculty of Law
National and University Library in Sarajevo
Radio and Television of Bosnia and Herzegovina headquarters in Sarajevo
Stećci from Radimlja, near Stolac (13th century)
Bosniaks dancing a traditional kolo
Serbs from Bosanska Krajina in traditional clothing
Bosnian meat platter that contains, among other things, ćevapi, which is considered the national dish of Bosnia and Herzegovina
The Asim Ferhatović Hase Stadium in Sarajevo hosted the opening ceremony of the 1984 Winter Olympics.
Edin Džeko, captain of the Bosnian national football team
Neum, Bosnian and Herzegovinan only town on the Adriatic

The three standard languages are fully mutually intelligible and are known collectively under the appellation of Serbo-Croatian, despite this term not being formally recognized in the country.

North Macedonia

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Country in Southeast Europe.

Country in Southeast Europe.

Tribal ethnes in the Southern Balkans prior to the expansion of Macedon
Heraclea Lyncestis, a city founded by Philip II of Macedon in the 4th century BC; ruins of the Byzantine "Small Basilica"
Miniature from the Manasses Chronicle, depicting the defeat of Samuil by Basil II and the return of his blinded soldiers
Nikola Karev, head of the provisional government of the short-lived Kruševo Republic during the Ilinden uprising
Celebration of the Ilinen Uprising in Kruševo during WWI Bulgarian occupation of Southern Serbia.
Members of the pro-Bulgarian Macedonian Youth Secret Revolutionary Organization (MYSRO) during the Skopje Student Trial in 1927. In December, 20 local youths were accused of fighting for an Independent Macedonia.
The division of the Ottoman territories in Europe (including the region of Macedonia) after the Balkan Wars according to the Treaty of Bucharest
Dimitar Vlahov, Mihajlo Apostolski, Metodija Andonov-Čento, Lazar Koliševski and others, greeted in Skopje on 20 November 1944, a week after its liberation
Lazar Koliševski was the political leader of SR Macedonia and briefly of SFR Yugoslavia.
Map of operations during the 2001 insurgency
Symbolic signing of the Prespa agreement
North Macedonia commemorates its accession to NATO at the US Department of State.
Mount Korab, the highest mountain in North Macedonia.
Matka Canyon
Köppen–Geiger climate classification map for North Macedonia
The Parliament Building of North Macedonia in Skopje.
Army of the Republic of North Macedonia
The flag of the then-Republic of Macedonia between 1992 and 1995, bearing the Vergina Sun
Rural/Urban municipalities
Statistical regions of North Macedonia
Vineyard in North Macedonia
Graphical depiction of North Macedonia's product exports.
The church of St. John at Kaneo and Lake Ohrid, one of the most popular tourist destinations in North Macedonia
Map of current and planned highways
European route E75 in North Macedonia
The Ss. Cyril and Methodius University in Skopje.
A 19th-century silver Hanukkah Menorah
Linguistic map of North Macedonia, 2002 census
Folk dancers
Tavče gravče
Toše Proeski Arena
The welcoming ceremony for RK Vardar after winning the 2016–17 EHF Champions League
Milcho Manchevski is a critically acclaimed Macedonian film and TV director who won the Golden Lion at Venice Film Festival

The standard language was codified in the period following World War II and has accumulated a thriving literary tradition.

Area where Shtokavian standard languages are spoken by the majority or plurality of inhabitants (in 2005)

Shtokavian

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Prestige dialect of the pluricentric Serbo-Croatian language and the basis of its Serbian, Croatian, Bosnian and Montenegrin standards.

Prestige dialect of the pluricentric Serbo-Croatian language and the basis of its Serbian, Croatian, Bosnian and Montenegrin standards.

Area where Shtokavian standard languages are spoken by the majority or plurality of inhabitants (in 2005)
Distribution of Shtokavian subdialects before 20th century
Serbo-Croatian dialects prior to the 16th-century migrations, distinguishing Western and Eastern Shtokavian
Map of Shtokavian dialects
Present-day spread of the three yat pronunciations in Serbo-Croatian: Ijekavian Ekavian Ikavian

The standard Bosnian, Croatian, Montenegrin, and Serbian variants of the pluricentric Serbo-Croatian standard language are all based on the Neo-Shtokavian dialect.

The distribution of the Irish language in 1871

Irish language

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Goidelic language of the Insular Celtic branch of the Celtic language family, which is a part of the Indo-European language family.

Goidelic language of the Insular Celtic branch of the Celtic language family, which is a part of the Indo-European language family.

The distribution of the Irish language in 1871
Bilingual sign in Grafton Street, Dublin
Bilingual road signs in Creggs, County Galway
The percentage of respondents who said they spoke Irish daily outside the education system in the 2011 census in the State.
A sign for the Department of Culture, Arts and Leisure in Northern Ireland, in English, Irish and Ulster Scots.
The Pale – According to Statute of 1488
The official symbol of the Irish Defence Forces, showing a Gaelic typeface with dot diacritics

In An Caighdeán Oifigiúil ("The Official [Written] Standard") the name of the language is Gaeilge, from the South Connacht form, spelled Gaedhilge prior the spelling reform of 1948, which was originally the genitive of Gaedhealg, the form used in Classical Gaelic.

Montenegro

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Country in Southeastern Europe.

Country in Southeastern Europe.

Ruins of the ancient city of Doclea
Battle of Vučji Do, 1876
Expansion of Montenegro from 1711 to 1918 within present borders
Royal family of Montenegro: King Nicholas I with his wife, sons, daughters, grandchildren and sons- and daughters-in-law
Captured ships of the Yugoslav Navy, Bay of Kotor 1941
Josip Broz Tito, President of SFR with the socio-political assets of SR Montenegro in the building of the Parliament of Montenegro
Supporters of Montenegrin independence in June 2006 in Cetinje
The controversial 2019 law on religious communities, introduced by the former ruling DPS, proposed the transfer of the majority of religious objects and land owned by the largest religious organization in the country, the SPC, to the Montenegrin state. It sparked a series of massive protests across the country, which led to the first government change in the country's history.
Satellite image of Montenegro and surrounding countries
The Koplje, Sjeverni and Veliki Vrh mountains 2490 m in Prokletije National Park
Lake Biograd in Biogradska Gora National Park, which is a UNESCO World Biosphere Reserve
Black Lake in Durmitor National Park, which is a UNESCO World Heritage Site
Lake Skadar National Park is a hotspot of freshwater biodiversity.
Parliament of Montenegro
Signing of the protocol on Montenegro's accession to NATO. Montenegro officially became the 29th member of the NATO in 2017
The Mausoleum of Petar II Petrović-Njegoš in Lovćen National Park
Montenegrin army soldiers with NATO allies from United States, Croatia, Albania, Slovenia and North Macedonia during “Immediate Response 2012”, Slunj, Croatia
Municipalities and Statistical regions of Montenegro
A proportional representation of Montenegro exports, 2019
Roads of Montenegro in service and two planned: red – Bar–Boljare highway, blue – Adriatic–Ionian motorway
The Bay of Kotor, a UNESCO World Heritage Site
The resort of Sveti Stefan, near the coastal town of Budva
Ethnic structure of Montenegro by settlements, 2011
Linguistic structure of Montenegro by settlements, 2011
Religious structure of Montenegro by settlements, 2011
National Museum of Montenegro
A first edition copy of Gorski vijenac (The Mountain Wreath; 1847)
Foods from Montenegro
Njeguški pršut
Podgorica City Stadium, Montenegro fans with national features
Montenegro, satellite view
Great People's Assembly on the occasion of the establishment of the Eighth Montenegrin Brigade in Berane, February 25, 1944.
Opening of Belgrade–Bar railway. Construction of the line started in the 1950s and completed in 1976. The line was opened in 1976 by the Yugoslavian President Josip Broz Tito
Map of the disintegration of Yugoslavia until 2008
Topographic map of Montenegro

Montenegrin, Serbian, Bosnian, and Croatian are mutually intelligible as standard varieties of the Serbo-Croatian language.